i.i  i  ;K>,\R  Y 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


on 

Mrs.  SARAH  P.  WALS  WORTH. 


iOLOGY 
WRARY 


•    Received  October, 
No. 


4« 


UBI7BRSIT7 


SYSTEMATIC 


PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY, 


HYGIENE 


-     •<••* 


BEING   AN   ANALYSIS   AND   SYNTHESIS   OF   THE 

HUMAN   SYSTEM, 
WITH    PRACTICAL    CONCLUSIONS. 


auto  tfmnjlete 


BT 


T.   S.  LAM.BERT,    M.D 


SECOND     EDITION. 


NEW  YORK: 

WILLIAM     WOOD'   &     C 
61  WALKER  STREET. 

1866. 


• 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


ENTERED,  Recording  to  Act  of  Co'n^ross,  in  the  year  1SG5,  bf 

T.    S.    LAMBERT, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


JOHN    F.  TROW, 

PBINTKB,  STERKOTYPER,  AND  ELICTROTTFER, 
No.  K>  Gr««ne  Str««t,  N«w  York. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 

PART  I. 

SYSTEMATIC  GENERAL  ANALYSIS. 
CHAP.       I.      ANALYSIS  OF  MAN  ;  into  Mind  and  Body,    .     19 

Anthropology:  Psychology:  Biology;  Human,  Animal,  Vegetable. 

CHAP.     II.       ANALYSIS  OF  BODY  ;  into  Members,     .    .     .    25 

First  Member,  HEAD;  Second,  Neck;  Third,  Trunk;  Fourth, 
lower  extremities;  Fifth,  upper  extremities;  Sixth,  larynx. 

CHAP.    HI.      ANALYSIS    OF  MEMBERS  ;    into   Groups    or 

Mechanisms, ^50 

G'  or  Mentory ;  G"  or  Sanguificatory. 

CHAP.    IV.      ANALYSIS  OF  GROUPS  ;  into  Apparatus,  .    .     57 

Sensatory;  Emotory ;  Intellectory ;  Motory;  N.  Circulatory; 
B.  Circulatory;  liespiratory ;  Digestory;  Lliminatory;  Modifi- 
catory. 

CHAP.      V.     ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS  ;  into  Organs,      .     60 

SEC.  I.  Bensatory  Organs:  Internal,  External  Organs  of  Sense, 
Nerves,  Ganglia ;  of  Hearing,  Sight,  Smell",  Taste,  Touch,  Mus- 
cular sense.— SEC.  II.  Motory  Organs:  Muscles,  Skeleton, 
Nerves,  Ganglia.  —  SEO.  III.-  Einotory  Organs:  Ganglia. — 
SEC.  IV.  Intellectory  Organs:  Ganglia.— SEC.  V.  Blood-circulat- 
ing Organs  :  Hearts,  Arteries,  Capillaries,  Veins,  Lymphatics. 
— SEC.  VI.  Nervous  Circulatory  Organs  :  Ganglia,  Nerves. — 
SEC.  VII.  Respiratory  Organs :  Nose,  Pharynx,  Larynx,  Tra- 
chea, Bronchi!,  Lungs,  Chest- walls,  Diaphragm.— SEC.  VIII.  Di- 
gestory Organs :  Food,  Mouth,  Salivary  Glands,  Pharynx,  (Eso- 
phagus, Stomach,  Gastric  Glands,  2d  Stomach,  Pancreas,  Liver, 
Gall-bladder,  Brunner's,  Lieberkiihn's,  and  Peyer's  glands,  Lac- 
teals,  Colon.— SEC.  IX. Modificatory  Organs:  (Lungs,  Liver,  In- 
testinal canal).  Kidneys,  Perspiratory,  Hair,  and  Sebaceous 
glands. — SEC.  X.  Eliminatory  Organs:  Blood-cells,  Lymphatic 
glands,  Spleen,  Thymus,  Thyroid,  and  suprarenal  glands.  Con- 
clusion of  Chap.  V. 

CHAP.    VI.      ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS  ;  into  Tissues,  Liquids, 

and  Gases. — Properties 130 

SEC.  I.  Tissues  and  their  Properties :  Bony,  Gristly,  Sinewy, 
Nervous,  Muscular  Secretory.— SEC.  II.  Liquids  and  their  prop- 
erties. — SEO.  III.  Gases.  Conclusion. 

CHAP.  VII.      ANALYSIS  OF  TISSUES  AND  FLUIDS;  into  Ele- 
ments,      140 

Proximate  or  Organic  Principles:    Chemical    Elements,    Com- 

•r 


* 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  VIII.    SYSTEMATIC  SYNOPSIS  OF  PRACTICAL  SUG- 

GESTIONS,   ...........   147 

Golden  Hint-  Words  :  Personal  Attractiveness.  Conclusion  of  Part  I. 


INTRODUCTION    TO    SYNTHESIS. 
PAET   II. 

SYSTEMATIC  DETAILED  SYNTHESIS. 
CHAP.      I.       SYNTHESIS   OF   CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS;   into 

Principles, 151 

SEC.  I.  Chemical  Elements.— SEC.  II.  Proximate  Principles. 

CHAP.     II.      SYNTHESIS  OF  ELEMENTS  AND  PRINCIPLES; 

into  Tissues  and  Fluids, 164 

Introductory  .—SEC.  I.  Secretory  Tissue:  Membrane,  Tubes, 
Cells.— SEC.  II.  Muscular :  Striated,  Non-striated.— SEC.  III. 
Nervous:  White, Grey.— SKC.  IV.  Sinewy :  Elastic,  Non-elastic, 
—SEC.  V.  Gristly  or  Cartilaginous.— SEC.  VI.  Bony  or  Osseous. 
— SEC.  VII.  Comparison  of  Tissues.— SKC.  VIII.  Compound  Tis- 
sues.-SEC.  IX.  Liquids.— SEC.  X.  Gases.  Practical  Review. 

CHAP.    III.      SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  ;  into  Organs.— Prop- 
erties ;  applied  to  Uses, 200 

Introductory.— SEC.  I.  Skeleton :  Bones.  Cartilages,  Ligaments, 
Synovial  Membrane,  Skull,  Vertebral  Column,  Ribs,  Sternum, 
Chest,  Lower  Extremities,  Upper  Extremities.  General  view, 
practical.— SEC.  II.  Muscles:  of  the  Head,  Neck,  Trunk-walls, 
Lower  Extremities,  Upper  Extremities.  General  view,  practi- 
cal.—SEC.  III.  Nerves.— SEC.  IV.  Ganglia:  Cerebral,  Cerebellar, 
Spinal,  Sympathetic.— SEC.  V.  Organs  of  Sense :  Muscles,  Skin, 
Mouth,  Nose,  Eye,  Ear.— SEC.  VI.  Circulatory  Organs:  Capilla- 
ries, Veins,  Hearts,  Arteries,  Lymphatics. — SEC.  VII.  Respira- 
tory Organs  .  Nose,  Pharynx,  Larynx,  Trachea,  Lungs.— 
SEC.  VIII.  Digestory  Organs :  Mouth,  Salivary  Glands,  Pha- 
rynx, (Esophagus,  Stomach,  Food,  Second  Stomach,  Pancreatic, 
Brunner's,  Lieberkubn's,  and  Peyer's  glands,  Liver,  and  Gall- 
bladder, Colon,  Lacteals.— SEC.  IX.  Eliininatory  Organs :  Kid- 
neys, Perspiratory,  Hair,  and  Sebaceous  glands,  Nails.— SEC.  X. 
Modificatory  Organs:  Blood-cells,  Lymphatic,  Splenic,  Thyroid, 
Thy  in  us,  and  Suprarenal  glands. 

CHAP.    IV.      SYNTHESIS  OF  ORGANS  ;  into  Apparatus,     .  376 

SEC.  I.  Motion:  Motory  Apparatus.— SEC.  II.  Intellection:  Intel- 
lectorv  Apparatus.— SEC.  III.  Emotion:  Emotory  Apparatus. — 
SEC.  IV.  Sensation:  Sensatory  Apparatus. — SEC.  V.  N.  Circu- 
lation :  N.  Circulatory  Apparatus. — SKC.  VI.  B.  Circulation : 
B.  Circulatory  Apparatus.- SEC.  VII.  Respiration:  Respiratory 
Apparatus. — SEC.  VIII.  Digestion:  Digestory  Apparatus. — 
SEC.  IX.  Elimination :  Eliminatory  Apparatus.— SEC.  X.  Modi- 
fication :  Modificatory  Apparatus. 

CHAP.      V.      SYNTHESIS  OF  APPARATUS;  into  Groups  or 

Mechanisms, 396 

CHAP.    VI.      SYNTHESIS  OF  GROUPS  ;  into  Members,    .     .   898 

MEMBERS  ;  into  Body, 
BODY  AND  MIND  ;  into  Man. 
APPENDIX, 399 


OF 

TJSI7BRSIT7 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 


"  What  a  piece  of  work  is  a  Man  1  How  noble  in  reason  I  how  infinite  in 
faculties  !  in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admirable  !  in  action  how  like 
an  angel  1  in  apprehension  how  like  a  god  I" 


XENOPHOX,  speaking  of  the  studies  that  Socrates  advised 
people  to  pursue,  says  : 

"  He  earnestly  recommended  those  who  conversed  with  him 
to  take  care  of  their  HEALTH,  both  by  learning  whatever  they 
could  respecting  it  from  men  of  experience,  and  by  attending  to 
it,  each  for  himself,  throughout  his  whole  life,  studying  what 
food  or  drink,  or  what  exercise,  or  what  clothing,  was  most 
suitable  for  him,  and  how  he  might  act  in  regard  to  them  so  as 
to  enjoy  the  best  health." 

Socrates  thought  health  attainable.  He  was  right;  for 
though  partly  dependent  on  inherited  constitution  and  the  care 
taken  of  childhood,  its  preservation  and  improvement  are  to  a 
great  degree  under  the  control  of  each  person. 

Socrates  also  thought  health  of  such  great  importance  in  daily 
life,  that  no  person  should  wait  for  his  own  experience  to  in- 
struct him,  but  should  avail  himself  pf  that  of  others.  Again 
he  was  right ;  for  health  is  a  means  as  well  as  an  end,  to  be  used 
and  enjoyed  as  well  in  the  earlier  as  in  the  later  periods  of 
life. 

In  those  days,  the  uncertain  experience  of  even  many  persons 
cast  but  a  feeble  light,  where  now  the  developments  of  science 
completely  illuminate  the  laws  of  health.  Had  Socrates  lived  in 
these  days  of  the  maturity  of  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Chemistry, 
and  kindred  branches,  then  in  infancy  or  even  unborn,  with 


tf  INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

what  earnestness  would  he  have  urged  that  every  child  should  be 
taught  the  golden  laws  of  Hygiene,  be  trained  to  practise  them, 
and  be  instructed  in  their  why  and  wherefore,  that  he  might 
practise  them  intelligently,  and  of  course  more  thoroughly  and 
satisfactorily ! 

But  there  is  a  very  marked  and  important  distinction  be- 
tween health  and  a  condition  best  adapted  for  use  and  appear- 
ance ;  though  the  latter  must  of  course  include  the  former.  In- 
deed, within  the  boundaries  of  health  there  is  a  wide  latitude 
for  the  activities  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body  and  the  dis- 
play of  taste  and  refinement  in  its  culture.  Laws,  therefore, 
which  govern  the  use  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  pro- 
mote personal  appearance — laws  of  physical  perfection — are  evi- 
dently required.  As  they  are  obtained  from  the  same  sources, 
at  the  same  time,  and  are  often  the  same  as  the  laws  of  health, 
they  are  classed  under  the  same  head. 

Hygiene  is  not,  therefore,  and  should  not  be,  restricted  as  its 
primary  meaning  would  signify ;  for  it  teaches  not  only  how  to 
keep  the  body  (1st)  in  health,  but  (2d)  in  the  best  condition  for 
desirable  use  and  appearance. 

As  Addition  enters  into  every  arithmetical  operation,  so  is 
Hygiene  elementary  in  every  pursuit,  being  of  hourly  utility 
to  every  person  and  in  every  possible  circumstance  in  life — 
really  most  useful  to  the  most  healthy ;  and  as  if  the  Divinity 
had  intended  that  what  is  so  essential  to  man's  welfare  should 
be  neither  difficult  to  teach  nor  to  learn,  the  mind  has  been  so 
constituted  and  the  body  so  constructed  that  a  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  Hygiene,  if  properly  presented,  can  be  easily  acquired, 
and  remarkably  early ;  for, 

In  the  first  place,  the  mind  has  the  greatest  "natural  cnri- 
osity  "  to  learn  the  structure  and  use  of  its  own  body :  it  is  the 
child's  earliest  wonder,  and  the  old  man's  latest  care. 

In  the  second  place,  no  other  subject  has  such  close  practical 
relations  to  life,  which  alone  would  make  it  intensely  interesting. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  7 

In  the  third  place,  no  other  subject  can  so  fully  illustrate 
cause  and  effect,  so  clearly  show  the  why  and  wherefore,  so 
readily  exhibit  evidences  of  rational,  ingenious  design, — a  study 
above  all  others  pleasing  to  the  youthful  mind. 

In  the  fourth  place,  no  other  subject  can  be  so  abundantly 
and  readily  illustrated,  either  by  objects  themselves  or  by  draw- 
ings of  them,  the  body  itself  furnishing  many  illustrations. 

In  the  fifth  place,  no  other  subject  admits  of  so  simple,  clear, 
and  complete  a  classification  and  arrangement,  analysis  and 
synthesis — which  may  be  illustrated  pictorially,  grouped  in 
tables  and  synopses,  and  in  other  striking  ways — arresting  and 
winning  the  attention,  producing  vivid  and  lasting  impressions, 
and  suggesting  inductions  and  deductions;  thus  enabling  the 
pupil  easily  to  learn,  remember,  and  apply  his  lessons. 

For  instance :  Plates  6  and  7  present  an  epitome  of 
Anatomy,  having  the  figures  arranged  in  such  order  as  will  im- 
press the  mind  with  a  correct  succession  of  ideas,  and  instantly 
suggest  important  facts  and  classifications ;  such  as, 

That  various  parts  of  the  body  are  similarly  constructed :  for 
example, 


(  Skeleton, 

I  Muscles, 
are  similarly  construct-  j  ^ erves 

I  Skin, 


edof 


f  Walls  of  the  HEAD,  1 

Neck, 

The  -I  Walls  of  the  Trunk, 
I  Upper  Extremities, 
[  Lower  Extremities,  J  [Blood-Tubes; 

That  there  are  two  cavities  shown  by  the. Skeleton;  one 
of  the  Head,  the  other  of  the  Trunk ; 

That  there  are  two  centres,  each  connected  with  all  parts 
of  the  body ;  one  the  political  capital,  the  Brain,  by  means  of  the 
Nerves,  Fig.  3 ;  the  other  the  commercial  capital,  by  means  of 
the  Blood-tubes,  Fig.  6,  Plate  6 ; 

That  there  are  two  great  groups  of  organs  in  the  body ;  one 
Mental,  Plate  6 ;  the  other  Blood-making  (Sanguific,  Sanguifica- 
tory,  or  Sanguinificatory),  Plate  7.  (See  also  table  page  399.) 

This  leads  to  the  observation  that  every  child  should  study 
Hygiene,  properly  presented,  because  it  will  have  a  favorable 


8  INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

influence  upon  bis  mind,  habituating  bim  to  look  for  a  cause  for 
every  effect ;  to  perceive  that  design  is  essential  to  the  best  re- 
sults ;  to  analyze  and  synthetize ;  to  classify  and  arrange  sys- 
tematically ;  to  induce  and  deduce — in  other  words,  to  think 
correctly. 

Life,  to  be  most  useful,  should  be  full  of  executed  purposes. 
A  true  life  may  be  called  a  great  purpose  compounded  of  many 
subsidiary  ones.  Hence  the  mind  is  constituted,  and  should  be 
trained,  to  purpose,  plan,  and  execute. 

Now,  in  the  Divine  mind  there  was  a  purpose,  to  execute 
which  the  human  body  of  coordinate  and  subordinate  parts  was 
most  exquisitely  planned.  In  its  study  there  must,  therefore,  be 
a  starting-point  and  a  conclusion  necessarily  related,  and  per- 
mitting between  them  a  most  rigid  analysis  and  synthesis. 

Besides,  so  much  is  this  study  in  accordance  with  the  consti- 
tution and  necessities  of  the  mind,  that,  as  nothing  improves  it 
more,  so  nothing  pleases  it  more ;  and,  "  to  please  is  the  first  step 
toward  instruction." 

What,  then,  can  be  more  normal  than  the  study  of  Divine 
purposes,  plans,  and  executions,  as  written  hi  the  human  body, 
and  exhibited  by  the  properly  arranged  study  of  the  human 
system  ? 

This  study  is  also  a  constant  hymn  to  the  Deity.  His  own 
works  praise  him  silently  and  profoundly,  impressing  the  mind 
far  beyond  what  can  be  done  by  any  words  of  man,  and  render- 
ing any  special  clauses  and  chapters  unnecessary. 

"  As  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree  is  inclined." 

Life  should  be  computed  not  only  by  the  lapse  of  time  be- 
tween birth  and  death,  but  also  by  what  is  done  and  expe- 
rienced during  that  time.  Hygiene  prolongs  life  in  a  twofold 
manner,  by  adding  to  the  number  of  its  days,  and  by  increasing 
their  efficiency,  both  mental  and  physical.  In  this  view,  the 
effect  of  this  study,  universally  and  properly  pursued,  would  be 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  9 

beyond  belief.  The  aggregate  length  of  human  life  would  be 
much  increased ;  pupils  would  study  more,  but  not  so  hard ; 
teachers  would  teach  more,  and  with  less  exhaustion  ;  farmers, 
mechanics,  merchants,  professional  men,  and  men  of  science 
would  achieve  and  enjoy  greater  results  than  no\v.  This  would 
be  better  than  adding  so  much  to  our  population ;  for  while 
all  good  results  would  be  correspondingly  increased,  the  ex- 
penses would  be  diminished.  Many  of  the  same  laws,  also, 
not  being  restricted  to  man,  but  equally  applicable  to  animals, 
(indeed,  in  the  single  item  of  properly  providing  for  cattle,  in 
the  State  of  New  York  alone,  the  economy  may  not  be  stated, 
as  it  would  appear  incredible,)  there  is  an  additional  reason  for 
the  study. 

Let  every  teacher,  and  all  others  interested  in  the  educa- 
tion of  children,  give  due  heed  and  full  weight  to  the  argu- 
ments adduced: 

That  health  can  be  improved  and  preserved ; 

That  the  body  is  one  of  the  tools  every  one  must  use  in  any 
avocation  or  enjoyment,  and,  for  perfect  use,  must  be  understood 
and  kept  in  perfect  condition  ; 

That  Hygiene,  properly  pursued,  induces  correct  methods 
and  habits  of  thought ; 

That  Hygiene  is  a  great  economist. 

Thoughts  and  arguments  like  these,  which  should  induce 
each  pupil  to  study  and  each  teacher  to  teach  this  subject,  have 
influenced  the  author  to  write  this  work.  True,  many  books,  and 
good  ones  too,  have  preceded  this.  Nearly  thirty  years  ago 
Dr.  Charles  A.  Lee,  the  pioneer  in  this  good  work,  produced  a 
text-book  which  at  this  day  ranks  as  one  of  the  best.  The 
names  of  a  score  who  have  written  since  might  be  worthily 
mentioned,  for  every  one  has  exhibited  much  merit,  and  some 
least  known,  the  most. 

But  the  study  is  not  yet  as  universal,  not  yet  as  attractive,  as 
is  desirable ;  and  whoever  can,  or  thinks  he  can,  should  add  his 
mite  to  the  best  of  efforts. 
1* 


10  INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

Something  valuable,  it  is  thought,  can  be  added  to  what  is 
already  of  great  intrinsic  merit,  by  both  illustration  and  presen- 
tation. This  is  made  conclusive  by  the  frequently  and  urgently 
expressed  desire  of  teachers,  well  qualified  to  judge,  that  for 
their  own  and  pupils'  use  the  subjects  should  be  presented  in 
book-form,  according  to  the  methods  that  had  given  satisfaction 
when  orally  used  before  them  and  their  classes. 

These  methods  are  neither  so  novel  nor  so  extraordinary  as 
to  render  useless  any  previously  acquired  familiarity  with  the 
subject ;  they  merely  make  it  more  familiar  by  presenting  known 
facts  and  ideas  in  a  new  light  and  with  new  features,  in  groups 
and  relations  suggesting  new  thoughts,  removing  obscurity,  and 
exhibiting  a  unity  and  completeness  highly  satisfactory. 

The  art  of  producing  the  desired  and  gratifying  result  does 
not  consist  in  the  use  of  a  single  idea  or  one  means  only.  The  first 
and  most  essential  idea  to  be  kept  in  mind  is,  that,  if  possible, 
the  reasons  for  the  existence  of  any  part  should  be  pointed  out 
before  its  structure  is  described  ;  for,  if  the  necessity  for  it,  and 
what  ought  to  be,  is  first  shown,  the  description  of  the  structure 
and  its  adaptation  to  use  will  be  much  more  interesting  and 
very  easily  understood. 

Physiology  naturally  precedes  Anatomy  in  the  order  of 
constructive  thought.  Purpose  is  always  antecedent  to  construc- 
tion, which  is  governed  by  and  in  accordance  with  purpose.  This 
is  the  Creative  idea  and  mode  of  thought,  and  also  the  most 
natural  and  delightful  to  the  human  mind.  It  is  the  key  to  the 
great  charm  that  always  abides  in  the  study  of  Natural  Theology. 

Functions  are  not  performed  because  certain  parts  exist,  but 
conditional  parts  exist  because  certain  functions  must  be  per- 
formed :  function  is  therefore  always  the  object  in  view  as  the 
result ;  and  how  to  perform  it  perfectly,  with  the  greatest  econ- 
omy of  time,  space,  and  material,  is  the  sub-necessary  question. 

Unfortunately,  though  the  general  purposes  and  the  modes 
and  results  of  action  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body  are  known, 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  11 

in  many  cases  it  is  otherwise  when  details  are  considered ;  and 
the  process  of  discovery  that  describes  structures,  and  conjec- 
tures or  endeavors  to  deduce  functions  therefrom,  is  the  only 
course  that  can  be  taken.  When,  however,  a  purpose  and  the 
action  necessary  to  accomplish  it  is  understood,  they  should  be 
explained  first ;  then  the  properties,  structure,  and  arrangement 
adapted  to  fulfil  the  purpose  should  be  suggested,  and  the 
student  encouraged  to  construct  mentally  a  part  in  accordance 
with  the  necessities  of  the  case.  Comparing  his  result  with  the 
reality,  he  will  be  delighted  to  observe  how  well  he  has  execu- 
ted his  own  imaginary  work — will  be  surprised  at  the  common- 
sense  manner  in  which  every  portion  of  the  body  has  been 
made,  and  cannot  but  admire  in  the  highest  degree  the  exquis- 
itely perfect  adaptation  of  every  part  to  all,  and  more  than  all 
that  he  would  have  required. 

Thus,  not  only  is  interest  excited  and  acquisition  made  rapid, 
but  brevity  is  likewise  gained ;  for  irrelevant  characteristics  may 
be  omitted  when  description  is  only  to  correspond  to  purpose, 
while  if  it  is  unknown,  every  particular  must  be  given. 

A  second  idea,  arising  from  the  first,  but  not  of  secondary 
importance,  is,  that  the  subjects  should  be  studied  under  divis- 
ions and  subdivisions  made  in  accordance  with  the  purposes  or 
uses  for  which  the  different  parts  of  the  body  were  designed ; 
the  parts  being  classed,  not  so  much  according  to  similarity  as 
community  of  use,  and  so  as  to  show  their  relations  to  each 
other,  to  the  whole  body,  and  to  the  mind. 

When  this  is  done,  there  will  be  exhibited  in  Physiology, 
Anatomy,  and  Hygiene,  an  analysis  and  synthesis,  a  systematic 
arrangement,  more  natural,  obvious,  and  complete,  than  can  be 
found  in  any  other  subject.  (See  page  399.) 

Classification  should  not  be  artificial,  arbitrary,  accidental, 
fanciful,  trifling,  or  superficial,  but  should  exhibit  the  Divine 
purpose  in  organizing  the  human  system,  which  in  itself  is  prac- 
tical knowledge. 


12  INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

By  classification  according  to  uses,  it  will  be  perceived  and 
appreciated  that  the  body  is  a  unit,  constructed  of  correlative 
and  subordinate  parts,  but  all  having  a  unitary  purpose ;  that, 
commencing  with  man,  composed  of  mind  and  body,  we  can  de- 
scend, by  a  regular  gradation  of  subdependent  relations,  through 
Members,  Groups,  Apparatuses,  Organs,  Textures,  and  Tissues, 
(with  the  addition  of  fluids,)  to  the  primary  elements  constitu- 
ting the  substratum  of  all  parts,  from  which,  by  synthesis,  the 
steps  can  be  retraced  till  we  find  every  subordinate  part  culmi- 
nate through  its  superior,  in  being  a  servant  to  the  mind,  for 
the  use  and  development  of  which  the  body  is  designed — the 
mind  and  body  acting  and  reacting  on  each  other  in  every  cir- 
cumstance in  life.  (See  the  Chart  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis,  in 
Appendix.) 

It  must  be  evident  that,  by  the  use  of  this  natural  and  legiti- 
mate classification  according  to  use,  the  labor  of  acquisition, 
retention,  and  application,  will  be  in  a  very  noteworthy  degree 
abridged. 

This  naturally  leads  to  the  third  idea,  which  is,  that  a  general 
and  brief  analysis  of  the  uses  and  construction  of  the  body 
should  be  given  as  an  introduction  to  the  synthetical  study  of 
details,  as  then  the  necessity  for  them  and  their  uses  will  be 
more  readily  apprehended,  since  they  are  useful  and  necessary 
only  as  they  are  subordinate  to  the  great  purpose  for  which  the 
body  exists ;  and  their  value  will  be  more  appreciated,  and  they 
will  become  more  interesting,  as  their  relations  to  those  purposes 
are  more  clearly  perceived.  It  may  be  added  that  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  are  so  intimately  associated  with,  and  act  and 
react  so  constantly  on,  each  other,  that  a  general  knowledge  of 
all  is  necessary  to  the  complete  understanding  of  any  one. 

If,  however,  any  teacher  thinks  that  details  should  be  studied 
first,  he  can  adopt  this  plan  by  commencing  with  the  synthetic 
view.  And  in  many  instances  it  will  be  best  for  him  to  do  this, 
and  conclude  with  the  General  Analysis,  or  he  may  have  the 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  13 

class  merely  read  the  General  Analysis  during  class-hour  the 
first  time  going  through  the  book. 

In  the  fourth  place,  it  may  be  suggested  that  blackboard 
exercises  should  be  conducted  in  connection  with  recitations. 
The  tables  or  synopses  should  be  built,  or  grow  up,  line  by  line, 
as  the  ideas  that  underlie  them  are  unfolded,  and  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  from  day  to  day  before  the  pupil,  and  be 
frequently  reviewed  or  rehearsed.  Each  table  can  be  transferred, 
for  convenience  of  preservation,  to  a  large  sheet  of  paper  or  of 
cloth.  But  when  such  sheets,  exhibiting  the  table  in  full,  are 
possessed,  they  should  not  be  used  till  made  up  on  the  board  by 
the  pupil.*  Tables  should  also  be  constructed  with  initials 
only,  and  in  several  forms,  and  be  made,  if  convenient,  with 
colored  chalks,  pencils,  inks,  or  paints,  and  with  letters  of  differ- 
ent shape  and  size,  in  order  to  make  the  distinctions  of  the 
classifications  and  their  suggestions  evident  to  the  eye. 


This  leads  to  the  fifth  idea,  or  means :  The  classifications 
should  be  represented  by  objects  when  possible;  by  models,  by 
pictures  and  drawings,  and  by  outlines  and  sketches  on  the 
blackboard.  All  such  illustrations  are  very  impressive  and 
lasting  in  their  effects.  Many  classifications  of  parts  of  the  body 
can  be  illustrated  by  corresponding  parts  of  animals,  which  al- 
ways proves  exceedingly  interesting  to  pupils.  By  illustrations 
and  classifications  something  more  is  meant  than  the  illustration 
of  single  and  isolated  parts ;  it  means  a  systematic  illustration  of 
all  the  classifications  so  far  as  possible — making  the  illustrations 
by  themselves  a  complete  epitome  or  abstract  of  relations.  Every 
teacher  will  of  course  understand,  without  a  hint,  the  advantage 
and  iihportance  of  illustrating  individual  parts. 


*  Sheets  exhibiting  the  most  important  tables,  in  colored  letters  of  various 
forms,  can  be  had  of  the  Publishers  of  this  work. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

The  order  in  which  illustrations  are  used  is  of  no  small  im- 
portance: it  should  always  be  in  accordance  with  the  action,  or 
use  of  parts,  and  have  reference  to  the  class  of  ideas  to  be  pre- 
sented. Plate  6  is  an  example  of  an  order  perfect  for  the  in- 
tended purpose  :  thus,  Eye — Nerve — Brain,  or,  Brain — Nerve — 
— Eye,  would  each  be  a  proper  order  in  its  peculiar  case,  as  the 
eye  acts  upon  the  nerve,  and  the  nerve  upon  the  brain,  the 
nerve  connecting  the  eye  and  brain  ;  but  Nerve — Eye — Brain, 
or,  Nerve — Brain — Eye,  would  never  be  a  proper  order  for 
mentioning  or  illustrating  those  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  eye  is 
not  between  the  nerve  and  brain,  nor  is  the  brain  between  the 
nerve  and  eye,  either  in  position,  or  action.  If  plates  are  sus- 
pended in  the  recitation  or  other  room,  their  order  should  be 
that  in  which  the  parts  represented  act  upon  or  relate  to  each 
other,  so  that  relations  and  uses  as  well  as  construction  should 
be  suggested. 

Under  the  preceding  six  headings  are  exhibited  the  most 
distinctive  methods  for  producing  the  result  that  so  many  teach- 
ers have  been  pleased  to  admire  and  to  desire  to  produce ;  if 
used  with  other  appropriate  means,  as  complete  success  as  that 
which  has  gratified  them  may  be  assured.  It  is  not  perfect.  It 
is  an  improvement.  Teachers  can  add  to  it,  as  by  increments  it 
has  grown  during  many  years'  experience,  now  by  a  new  reflec- 
tion, now  by  a  new  truth,  now  by  some  suggestion  of  a  teacher, 
and  not  unfrequently  by  the  timely  question  of  a  pupil.  These 
methods  are  only  one  convenient  part  of  the  apparatus  to  be 
used  in  teaching  Hygiene. 

In  addition,  it  may  be  suggested  that  all  ideas  presented 
should  as  far  as  possible  be  illustrated  by  facts  within  the  obser- 
vation of  the  pupils  or  drawn  from  the  teacher's  own  experience, 
by  anecdotes,  and  in  any  other  way  that  will  arrest  attention  or 
excite  interest;  and  especially  should  every  practical  idea  be 
enforced  by  illustrations  of  the  necessity  for  and  the  results  of 
its  application.  (See  Appendix  C.) 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS.  15 

It  is  above  all  things  important  that  the  teacher  be  persuaded, 
and  persuade  his  pupils  to  believe  the  fact,  that  this  subject  is  an 
easy  one  to  learn.  The  body  is  not  that  complex  apparatus  it  at 
first  seems  to  be.  This  impression  is  induced  by  the  manner  in 
which  its  parts  are  packed,  and  as  it  were  interwoven,  in  order 
that  they  may  occupy  a  small  space  and  present  a  neat  appear- 
ance. But  when  the  body  is  properly  resolved  into  its  constit- 
uent elements,  they  will  be  found  few  in  number,  easily  compre- 
hended ;  and  a  student  will  quickly  learn  how  to  build  them 
up  and  take  them  down,  and  the  correct  philosophy  of  all  the 
circumstances  that  work  their  harm  or  good. 

The  subject  sometimes  appears  difficult  and  tedious  on  ac- 
count of  the  many  details  and  technical  expressions  with  which 
it  is  encumbered.  Most  of  these  are  entirely  unnecessary  in  a 
work  for  popular  use. 

Let  teachers  observe  and  inculcate  the  very  marked  distinction, 
in  this  respect,  between  popular  and  professional  use.  The  latter 
requires  a  knowledge  of  a  thousand  details  and  a  corresponding 
number  of  terms,  while  professional  writings  so  abound  in  tech- 
nical expressions,  that  the  sooner  a  professional  student  becomes 
familiar  with  them  the  better.  "When  familiar  with  them,  and 
most  of  his  knowledge  has  been  obtained  in  part  through  their 
use,  it  will  be  more  difficult  for  him  to  express  himself  other- 
wise, than  to  translate  from  one  language  to  another.  Hence 
the  multiplicity  of  such  expressions  in  works  intended  for 
general  use.  It  is  better  for  the  popular  student  to  have  the 
translation  made,  however  inconvenient  it  may  be  to  the  wri- 
ter ;  for  the  expressions  are  often  awkward,  and  always  sound 
pedantic  outside  of  professional  circles.  It  will  be  difficult  for 
him  to  understand  their  true  force,  and  he  has  not  the  time  to 
make  himself  familiar  with  them.  The  various  details,  and  the 
few  terms  necessary  or  of  any  advantage  to  him,  will  be  so  evi- 
dently convenient,  that  they  will  neither  be,  nor  appear  to  be, 
burdensome.  Even  the  use  of  these  had  better  be  avoided  in 


16  INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

the  general  presentation,  or,  so  to  speak,  plan,  of  new  ideas,  to 
either  the  popular  or  the  professional  student;  as  ideas  are 
usually,  though  not  always,  more  easily  obtained  through  lan- 
guage that  is  familiar,  though  imperfect,  than  when  the  mean- 
ing of  it  is  also  to  be  learned.  (See  Appendix  E.) 

Such  an  explanation  as  that  just  made  will  often  remove  a 
very  natural  prejudice  from  the  minds  of  parents,  and  secure  the 
favorable  opinion  of  any  professional  man  who  would  not  be 
likely  to  think  a  few  weeks  of  much  use  in  his  studies,  or  that 
they  could  be  easily  comprehended  by  young  persons.  That 
labor  is  not  lost  which  will  render  this  subject  agreeable  to 
every  person.  It  is  worthy  of  patience  and  painstaking.  Not 
the  wise,  but  the  ignorant,  need  instruction,  and  ignorance  must 
be  removed,  not  offended  nor  opposed. 

But  any  difficulties   in  connection  with  this  subject  will 
readily  melt  away  under  the  warm  enthusiasm  of  a  teacher  zeal 
ous  to  discharge  all  his  duty,  and  ambitious  to  take  a  high  rank. 
in  one  of  the  most  useful  and  deserving  professions. 

This  work  was  prepared — 

(1st)  Because  the  study  of  Hygiene  will  promote  health,  pro- 
long life,  improve  personal  appearance,  render  the  action  of 
body  and  mind  more  efficient,  and  much  increase  the  sum  of 
human  happiness. 

(2d)  Because,  though  the  subject  is  well  presented  in  many 
books,  and  well  taught  through  their  use,  improvements 'upon 
them  are  desirable  and  attainable.  A  little  improvement  in  a 
subject  of  such  importance  is  a  gain  exceeding  the  outlay  of 
means;  even  without  improvement  a  new  book  will  refresh  and 
invigorate  a  teacher,  and  it  will  be  profitable  to  any  pupil  to 
have  more  than  one  work  on  this  subject. 

(3d)  Because  many  persons,  well  qualified  to  judge,  have  de- 
cided that  its  distinctive  features  are  superior,  and  desired  to 
have  a  text-book  prepared  in  accordance  with  them ;  and 

'. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS.  17 

(4th)  Because  the  publishers  were  desirous  of  presenting  to 
teachers  and  the  puhlic  a  work  illustrated  and  executed  in  a 
style  worthy  of  the  subject. 

The  ideal  plan  of  the  work  is — 

(1st)  To  show,  when  possible,  the  necessity  for  a  part,  and 
the  properties  and  construction  required,  before  describing  it  as 
it  exists. 

(2d)  To  present  a  brief  general  analysis  (retraced,  a  general 
synthesis)  of  the  uses  and  construction  of  the  whole  body,  pre- 
paratory to  the  complete  study  of  details  (synthetic,  retraced 
analytic). 

(3d)  To  classify  parts  according  to  their  uses,  co-ordination, 
correlation,  and  subordination. 

(4th)  To  illustrate  classifications  as  well  as  their  constituent 
parts. 

(5th)  To  exhibit  relations  by  tables,  synopses,  and  black- 
board exercises. 

(6th)  To  present  new  ideas  in  familiar  language,  and  supply 
the  appropriate  terms  afterward. 

(7th)  To  lead  the  student  himself,  from  sustaining  facts,  to 
make  immediately  those  inductions,  deductions,  and  inferences, 
that,  with  the -instructions  of  experience,  constitute  practical 
Hygiene ;  to  observe  the  constant  relations  between  the  Mind, 
Body,  and  External  World,  that  he  may  not  think  time  spent  in 
providing  for  physical  welfare,  and  in  improving  his  surround- 
ings, is  taken  from  mental  advancement,  but  may  know  that  the 
Body  must  be  kept  in  a  perfect  condition  in  order  that  he  may 
possess  the  highest  capabilities. 

(8th)  To  throw  into  an  Appendix,  models  of  blackboard  ex- 
ercises, charts,  cuts,  and  other  matter,  which,  though"  relevant, 
explanatory,  and  useful,  would  appear  to  encumber  the  text  and 
disturb  its  unity  ;  while  the  cuts,  beautifully  printed  upon  tinted 
paper,  will  be  a  very  useful  and  attractive  feature. 

(9th)  To  frame,  as  far  as  possible,  the  questions  at  the  bot- 


18  INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

toms  of  pages,  so  that  they  will  be  in  part  composed  of  the 
capitalized  words  of  corresponding  paragraphs,  thus  making  the 
questions  strikingly  topical,  and  not  liable  to  objections. 

These  improved  methods,  in  connection  with  the  admirably 
illustrative  cuts  furnished  by  the  publishers,  will,  it  is  hoped  and 
believed,  assist  in  habituating  students  to  correctly  exercise  and 
develop  their  thinking  powers,  and  enable  them  to  become 
more  pleasantly,  rapidly,  and  completely  acquainted  with  the 
laws  of  Hygiene  than  previous  opportunities  have  allowed. 

The  work  is  addressed  to  those  desirous  of  self-improvement, 
and  willing  to  take  the  pains  necessary  for  it ;  who  value  them- 
selves as  having  minds  as  well  as  bodies,  the  former  of  which 
can  be  as  much  improved  by  mental  as  the  latter  by  physical 
gymnastics ;  who  think  that  man  in  his  rich  endowment  of 
immortality  is  ennobled  above  all  comparison  with  earthly 
distinctions, 'and  worthy  of  his  own  highest  respect  and  care; 
who  desire  to  learn,  therefore,  not  merely  to  recite  a  lesson,  but 
to  obtain  knowledge,  and,  feeling  the  value  of  this  acquisition,  are 
willing  to  invest  the  necessary  labor  : — also  to  teachers  who 
esteem  the  "  laborer  worthy  of  his  hire,"  and  demand  it,  yet 
enjoy  an  additional  rich  reward  in  doing  that  which  will  consti- 
tute the  germs  of  exalted  habits  in  future  generations  through 
widespread  communities,  and  are  ever  ready  to  impart  know- 
ledge to  those  desirous  of  learning  the  laws  of  Hygiene. 

In  the  same  spirit,  nothing  will  give  the  author  higher  pleas- 
ure than  to  assist,  personally  or  by  letter,  teachers  and  students 
in  ncquiring  or  disseminating  a  knowledge  of  the  Laws  of 
Hygiene ;  and  he  would  solicit  the  favor  of  their  acquaintance,  or 
the  continuation  of  it,  upon  the  ground  of  community  of  opin- 
ions, feelings,  and  interests. 


I7ERSIT7 


SYSTEMATIC 

H  TJ  M  -A-  3ST 

PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY,  AND  HYGIENE. 

PART  I. 

GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


CHAPTER   I. 
SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  MAN. 

Composed  of  Mind  and  Body. 

1.  ANTHROPOLOGY,  from  anthropos^  a  man,  and  logos, 
a  discourse,  treatise,  or  science,  is  the  name  given  to  a 
department  of  science  that  treats  upon  the  entire  nature 
of  man.  (See  Appendix  A.) 

The  capitalized  words  commencing  a  paragraph"  in  tho  text  usually  indicate 
topics,  and  a  word  or  two  more  will,  with  them  and  an  interrogation  point,  form  a 
question.  What  is,  with  "  ANTHROPOLOGY,"  and  an  ?  will  bring  out  the  whole  mat- 
ter of  the  first  paragraph,  Teachers  can  readily,  therefore,  ask  questions  without 
reference  to  those  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  In  those,  the  dash  before,  between, 
or  after  words  in  questions,  is  to  be  understood  as  meaning  the  capitalized  words  of 
the  paragraph  correspondingly  numbered.  In  some  questions  the  capitalized  verb 
must  be  repeated,  and  the  order  of  the  words  changed.  The  Teacher  may  ask  such 
questions  on  Ap.  as  is  judged  proper.  It  should  be  read  in  class.  A  Blackboard 
(B — d)  should  always  be  present  at  recitations  ;  if  not,  a  slate  or  paper  should  serve 
the  same  purpose. — Have  you  read  "  Introductory  Remarks  ? "'  What  is  the  pur« 
port  of  them  ?  1.  What  ia  —  ?  Have  you  read  Ap.  A  ? 


20  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

2.     MAN  is  COMPOSED  of  Mind  and  Body  ;  therefore 
Anthropology  must  be  divided  into  two  sub-sciences. 


3.  PSYCHOLOGY,  from  Psyche,  the  soul,  and  logos, 
is  the  name  of  that  science  that  treats  upon  the  nature 
of  the  human  mind,  and  the  methods  of  developing  its 
powers. 

4.  BIOLOGY,  from  Bios,  life,  and  logos,  is  the  most 
correct  name  of  that  science  that  treats  upon  physical 
life  ;  that  is,  life  exhibited  by  vegetables,  animals,  and 
also  by  man,  but  not  including  his  mental  life. 

C  Human. 
BIOLOGY    .......    -j  Animal. 

(  Vegetable. 

5.  HUMAN,  ANIMAL,  AND  VEGETABLE  BIOLOGY,  are 
the  names  given  to  the  three  divisions  of  that  depart- 
ment;  they  correspond  to  the  three  general  forms  in 
which  physical  life  is  exhibited.    (See  Ap.  A.  g.) 

6.  COMPARATIVE   BIOLOGY,  is  the   name   given  to 
a  science  the  object  of  which  is  to  compare  the  three 
kinds  of  life,  and  the  various  parts  of  vegetables,  ani- 
mals, and  man,  so  as  to  make  out  analogies,  discern  uses, 
and  draw  instructive  conclusions  in  respect  to  the  use 
of  parts. 

7.  EACH  DIVISION  OF  BIOLOGY  is  subdivided  into 
PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY,  HYGIENE,  Pathology,  Therapeu- 
tics, Materia-Medica,  and  Surgery  each  classed  as  Hu- 
man, Animal,  Vegetable,  and  Comparative,  according  to 
application.     (See  Ap.  B.) 


r  PHYSIOLOGY, 

) 

ANATOMY, 

>•  POPULAR. 

(  Human,        ) 
BIOLOGY   •]  Animal,        [• 
(Vegetable,    ) 

HYGIENE, 
Pathology, 
Therapeutics, 

Y  Professional. 

Materia-Medica, 

Surgery, 

2.  Of  what  is  —  ?  Write  Div.  of  Anthro.  on  B— d.  3.  What  is  —  ?  4.  What 
Is  —  ?  Write  Div.  of  Biol.  on  B— d.  5.  What  are  —  ?  What  does  Ap.  A.  g.  state  ? 
6.  What  U  —  ?  7.  How  is  —  ?  Write  Div.  and  Subdiv.  of  Biol.  on  B— d. 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   MAN.  21 

8.  PHYSIOLOGY,  or  Bio-Dynamics^  treats  upon  the 
purposes,  uses,  functions,  actions,  properties,  results,  and 
relations  of  the  various  parts  of  living  things. 

9.  ANATOMY,  or  Bio-Statics,  treats  upon  the  struc- 
ture, viz.,  color,  size,  form,  surface,  position,  and  compo- 
sition of  living  things. 

10.  HYGIENE   treats    upon   Health,  what  will  im- 
prove and  preserve  it,  what  will  impair  and  destroy  it ; 
and  also  upon  the  means  best  adapted  to  produce  and 
preserve  a  desirable  condition  for  use  and  appearance  in 
the  various  parts  of  living  things.   It  also  draws  in  a  few 
practical  facts  from  its  professional  co-divisions.      Hu- 
man Hygiene  treats  also  of  the  mind,  so  far  as  its  condi- 
tion is  dependent  on  the  body. 

11.  PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY,  AND  HYGIENE  may  be 
treated  in  either  a  professional  or  a  popular  manner: 
their  co-divisions,  treating  upon  the  effects  of  disease, 
its  cure,  the  nature  and  use  of  medicines,  and  manual 
operations,  are  professional. 

12.  THE  PROFESSIONAL  STUDY  of  Anatomy,  Physi- 
ology, and  Hygiene,  includes  all  their  details  and  modes 
of  expression,  requiring  years  of  time  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  their  co-divisions,  and,  for  skilful  applica- 
tion in  curing  disease,  much  experience  and  disciplined 
observation. 

13.  THE  POPULAR  STUDY  of  Physiology,  Anatomy, 
and  Hygiene,  includes  only  so  much  of  them  as  is  of  use 
to  all  classes  of  persons :    the  whole  of  Hygiene,  much 
of  Physiology,  and  less  of  Anatomy.     Few  details  are 
required  ;  few  technical  terms,  and  not  one  technical  ex- 
pression (that  so  much  abound  in  the  professional  study) ; 
very  little  of  the  mere  mechanical,  very  little  of  drudgery : 
whatever  is  curious,  whatever  is  interesting,  whatever  is 
instructive  or  practical,  is  appropriate.     It  is  brief,  and 
at  once  matures  its  fruit  for  use  in  every-day  life. 

8.  — treats  upon  what?  9.  —  treats  upon  what?  10.  Upon  what  does  —  ? 
11.  How  may—?  12.  What  does  —  include?  13.  What  does  —  include  ?  What 
is  appropriate  to  the  study  of  Hygiene  ? 


22  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

14.  THE  MODES  OF  TREATING  Human  Physiology, 
Anatomy,  and  Hygiene  are   numerous;   indeed,  there 
hardly  seems  to  be  any  method,  or  approach  to  unanim- 
ity of  treatment)  as  in  other  sciences ;  but  they  may  all 
be  classed  as  the  disjunctive  and  the  systematic,  which 
will  correspond  to  professional  and  popular  use. 

"-™- I 

15.  BY  THE  DISJUNCTIVE  OR  DISCRETE  METHOD, 
Human  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  are  treated 
upon  separately,  and  their  divisions  even  independently ; 
it  is  not  therefore  adapted  to  popular,  but  to  professional 
use ;  if  not  the  better  for  that  use,  there  are  at  least  rea- 
sons why  it  is  adopted,  and  may  be  with  propriety,  espe- 
cially if  the  popular  precede  the  professional  study,  as 
ought  always  to  be  the  case. 

16.  BY  THE  SYSTEMATIC  OR  CONCRETE  METHOD,  Hu- 
man Physiology,  Anatomy,  and  Hygiene  are  treated  as 
the  topics  of  a  subject  so  intimately  and  systematically 
related  throughout  its  divisions  and  subdivisions,  that, 
for  popular  use,  neither  can,  independently,  be  fully  and 
practically  discussed. 

By  this  method,  as  far  as  possible,  the  structure  or 
Anatomy  of  parts  is  treated  as  secondary  to  their  rela- 
tions and  uses,  or  Physiology,  on  account  of  which  the 
peculiarities  of  their  structure  are  required,  and  the  best 
condition  for  which,  it  is  the  province  of  Hygiene  to 
point  out. 

By  this  method  the  body  is  treated  as  a  system  of 
sub-systems,  well  denominated  The  Human  System — a 
whole  composed  of  dependent  and  sub-dependent  parts, 
but  all  working  together  harmoniously,  their  proper  and 
only  correct  classifications  being  thus  naturally  indicated 
by  their  uses  and  relations. 

17.  Inf. — USES  AND  RELATIONS  are,  therefore,  the 


14.  What  are  —  ?  Write  Div.  of  Methods  on  B— d.  15.  How  —  are  ?  16.  -  how 
are  ?  How  by  this  method  ia  Anatomy  treated  ?  How  is  the  body  treated  ?  17.  — 
are  what? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   MAN.  23 

keynote  to  the  systematic  method,  and  to  the  interest, 
brevity,  practical  character,  and  completeness  that  dis- 
tinguish it. 

18.  ANALYSIS,  from  two  Greek  words,  signifies  the 
separation  of  a  compound  into  its  constituent  elements. 

19.  BY  ANALYSIS,  ACCORDING  TO  THE  SYSTEMATIC 
METHOD,  the  Human  System  is  resolved  into  Members, 
Groups,  Apparatus,  Organs,  Tissues  and  Fluids,  Ana- 
tomical Elements  and  Chemical  Elements,  each  a  subdi- 
vision of  that  which  precedes  it,  the  whole  exhibiting  a 
perfect  hierarchy  of  parts. 

M,™  Appa-       n         Fluids       Anat.       Chem. 

Body    =  ^m-  =Groups=     ra-     =^=     &      =    Ele-    =    Ele- 
tus        San>      Tissues      mentg 


20.  SYNTHESIS,  from  two  Greek  words,  is  the  oppo- 
site of  Analysis,  and  signifies  the  uniting  together  of 
elements  to  form  a  compound. 

21.  BY  SYNTHESIS,  ACCORDING  TO  THE  SYSTEMATIC 
METHOD,  from  the  thirteen  essential,  fundamental,  Chem- 
ical Elements,  through  the  successive  steps  of  construct- 
ing Anatomical  Elements,  Fluids  and  Tissues,  Organs, 
Apparatus,  Groups,  and  Members,  the  Human  System  is 
built  up  a  complete  unit,  all  its  parts  working  systemat- 
ically together  for  a  common  purpose,  the  development 
of  the  mind.     (See  page  399.) 

Chem.       Anat.    .  Fluids  .    Or    .   Appa-  M 

,  Groups  ,  *J£  ,  Body. 


merits      ments      Tissues    '  tus 

METHOD    ,     .    .. 


22.  Inf. — SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  thus 
triumphantly  prove  that  man  is  composed  of  mind  and 
body,  the  latter  secondary — the  servant,  yet  an  instru- 
ment essential  to  the  development  and  activity  of  the 
mind,  and  also  the  active  channel  through  which  the 
mind  exerts  influences  upon,  and  receives  them  from,  the 
great  world  external  to  the  body. 

18.  What  is  —  ?  19.  —  how  is  System  resolved?  Write  Anal,  of  System  on 
B-d.  20.  What  is  -?  21.  —  how  System  built  ?  Write  Synth.  System  on  B~d. 
22.  What  does  —  prove?  Write  Div.  of  man  on  B— d. 


GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

MAN    . 

\  BODY. 

23.  Inf. — THE  WELFARE  OF  MAN  requires  a  know- 
ledge of,  and  the  training  of,  the  entire  MAN — not  of  the 
mind  alone,  not  of  the  body  alone;  but  the  education  of 
the  former,  and  the  exercise  of  the  latter. 

TRAINED  MAN    ,  \  Educated  Mind. 

(  Exercised  Body. 

^24.  Inf.— THE  ENTIRE  WELFARE  OF  MAN  also  re- 
quires the  proper  arrangement  of  the  external  world, 
that  it  may  act  favorably  upon  the  body,  and  through  it 
upon  the  mind.  (See  Ap.  D.) 

(  Mind  Educated. 

WELFARE  OF  MAN •]  Body  Exercised. 

(  World  Arranged. 

25.  ^/—SYSTEMATIC  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY,  AJSATO- 
MY,  AND  HYGIENE,  presented  Analytically  and  Synthet- 
ically, is,  according  to  the  meaning  given  of  those 
words,  the  appropriate  title  to  a  work  that  proposes, 
with  distinctness,  brevity,  and  completeness,  to  treat 
upon  whatever  in  the  Human  System  is  curious,  interest- 
ing, or  practical,  for  popular  use. 


Analytic,    )  Systematic, 


Synthetic,  f  Popular, 

Disjunctive, 
Professional, 


Phys. 
Anat. 
Hyg. 


Psychology, 


.j  Human  |Biology 


,  1 
J 


FOLOGT. 


(It  is  not  necessary  to  introduce  in  the  title  the  word 
popular,  as  the  idea  is  expressed  in  systematic ;  neither 
is  it  necessary  to  refer  in  it  to  the  mind,  nor  to  the  Exter- 
nal World,  since  they  are  only  treated  incidentally,  as 
intimately  related  to  the  body,  as  beneficent  or  injuri- 
ous influences,  or,  as  exhibiting  the  rationale  of  its 
structure  and  action. 

Neither  is  it  necessary  in  the  title  to  express  the 
ideas  of  Induction,  Deduction,  or  Inference,  as  Analysis 
and  Synthesis  essentially  include  those  ideas,  especially 
if  the  Analysis  and  Synthesis  is  developed  by  a  natural 
progress  from  one  division  to  another,  which  is  a  point 
of  prime  importance.)  (See  Ap.  F.) 

28.  What  does  —  require?  What  has  a  trained  man?  Write  table  on  B— d. 
24.  What  does  —  require  ?  Read  Ap.  D.  Write  table  of  Welfare.  25.  What  is  —  ? 
Write  synthetic  table  on  B— d.  Read  Ap.  F. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  BODY. 
Members. 

26.  THE  MIND  AND  BODY  ARE  UNITED  in  a  manner 
unknown.     It  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  science,  not  as 
yet  to  the  slightest  degree  fathomed.     As  how  the  mind 
acts  or  is  acted  upon  is  not  known,  no  reason  can  be 
given   why   it   must   be   associated   with  any  peculiar 
structure,  nor  why  the  peculiar  structure  is  adapted  to 
its  purpose. 

27.  THE  MIND  is  NOT  ASSOCIATED  DIRECTLY  with  all 
parts  of  the  body ;  for  large  portions  of  it  may  be  dis- 
eased or  removed  without  immediately,  if  at  all,  affecting 
the  powers  of  the  mind. 

28.  THE  SEAT  OF  THE  MIND  MUST  BE  CONNECTED 
with  all  parts  of  the  body,  because  the  influences  of  the 
mind  are  exerted  upon  all  parts. 

29.  THE  BRAIN  on  THE  HEART  MUST  BE  THE  SEAT  OF 
THE  MIND,  since  they  are  the  only  parts  of  the  body  con- 
nected with  all  the  rest — the  heart  by  means   of   the 
blood-tubes,  and  the  brain  by  means  of  the  nerves.    But 
the  heart  and  blood-tubes  have  one  office  to  perform,  the 
circulation  of  the  blood;  and  they  are  also  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  brain  and  nerves. 

Fig.  43,  on  the  following  page,  is  a  plan  of  the  Brain,  Spinal  Cord,  and 
Nerves,  supposing  the  body  to  be  transparent  and  no  parts  visible,  except 
the  nervous  system,  which  is  not  in  a  plane,  but  extends  backward  and 
forward,  terminating  in  the  skin  as  well  as  other  parts  throughout  the  body. 
Though  the  branches  appear  to  be  numerous,  not  one  in  a  thousand  of 


26.  How  are  —'!    27.  With  what  is  -?    28.  With  what  must  —  ?    29.  Why 
must  —  ? 


26 


GENEKAL   ANALYSIS. 


FIG.  43 


the  minute  nerves  can  be  shown.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  blood- 
tubes  of  Fig.  44.  There  is  not  a  portion  of  the  body  as  large  as  a  pin's 
head  that  does  not  have  both  a  nerve  and  a  blood-tube  commencing  in  it 


Describe  Fig.  48.     Where  <lo  the  branches  of  nerve  a  seem  to  commence? 
Where  the  branches  of  nerve  6  f 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   THE    BODY. 


FIG.  44. 


Fig.  44  illustrates  one 
class  of  blood-tubes, 
called  arteries,  com- 
mencing at  H,  the 
heart,  and  dividing 
and  subdividing,  ac- 
cording to  the  mem- 
bers, until  all  parts  ot 
the  body  are  reached, 
where  they  terminate 
in  the  next  class.  The 
capillaries  are  a  net- 
work of  hair-like  tubes, 
too  small  to  be  seen  by 
the  naked  eye,  into 
which  the  arteries  pour 
their  contents.  They 
are  more  numerous  in 
the  brain  than  in  any 
other  part.  From  the 
capillaries  the  veins 
commence  (see  PI.  5), 
and  uniting  together, 
and  also  receiving  the 
contents  of  the  fourth 
class  of  tubes,  they  at 
last  open  into  another 
part  of  the  heart,  from 
whence  the  arteries 
lead  out.  The  fourth 
class  of  tubes,  called 
lymphatics  (see  PI.  5*), 
commences  in  every 
part  except  the  brain 
and  nerves,  and  open 
into  the  veins,  and 
thus  their  contents  find 
their  way  to  the  heart. 


FIKST   MEMBER     OF    THE    BODY. 

30.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MIND,  therefore, 
requires  the  use  of  that  beautiful  collection  of  similar 
parts,  called  the  Brain,  Brains,  or  Mental  Ganglia,  in  the 
hidden  recesses,  and  by  means  of  which,  in  the  most 


Describe  Fig.  44.     What  member  of  the  Body  is  now  to  be  treated  upon? 
80.  What  does  —  require? 


28  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

mysterious  manner,  the  Mind  receives  impressions,  en- 
joys emotions,  meditates,  and  wills.     (Ap.  G.) 

FIG.  45.  FIG.  46. 


Fig.  45  shows  the  surface  of  the  left  Brain,  1  to  6,  in  the  cranium,  with 
the  facium  and  three  of  its  organs  of  observation  added. 

Fig.  46  represents  a  perpendicular  section  of  the  Head,  just  back  of 
the  line  of  the  ears.  The  external  line  represents  the  skin,  the  second 
one  and  the  dots  represent  the  cranium,  the  third  one  the  lining  of  the 
cranium,  at  a  following  down  the  fissure  between  the  right  and  left  cere- 
brum, and  back  again,  the  two  becoming  one  by  adhering  together,  and 
called  the  falx.  The  fourth  or  irregular  line  is  intended  to  represent  the 
uneven  surface  of  the  large  Brain,  each  one  of  the  eminences  being  called  a 
convolution,  and  the  indentations  between  them  anfractuosities,  some  of 
which  are  quite  deep,  as  represented,  the  sides  lying  against  each  other. 
Let  the  brain  of  a  pig,  or  some  other  creature,  be  examined  to  illustrate 
the  touch,  the  texture,  and  general  appearance ;  the  convolutions  are  not 
so  numerous  nor  so  prominent,  nor  the  anfractuosities  so  deep,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  human  Brain,  yet  they  give  a  good  general  idea  of  it. 

31.  IT  WILL  NOT  BE  DIFFICULT,  the  intimate  relation 
of  the  mind  and  brain  being  thus  determined,  to  previse 
what  other  uses,  parts,  and  structures  it  requires  in  the 
body,  for  they  must  stand  related  to  the  brain  as  Agents, 
Protectors,  Executors,  Telegraphers,  Examiners,  ^Report- 
ers,   Orators,  Purveyors,    Chemists,    Cooks,    Calorifiers, 
Distributors,  Porters,  Lacqueys,  Scavengers,  &c.,  in  fact 
quite  an  establishment,  all  subsidiary  to  the  Brain,  and 
willingly  acknowledging  its  mastery. 

32.  THE  EXQUISITELY  DELICATE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE 


What  is  the  purport  of  A  p.  G  ?     Describe  Fig.  45.   Fig.  46.    81.  What  will  —  to 
previse?    32.  What  does  —  require? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF   THE    BODY.  29 

BRAIN  requires  the  most  considerate  protection  from 
MOAVS  not  merely,  but  from  jars  even,  and  also  from  the 
slightest  inequalities  of  temperature. 

33.  THE  GANGLIA  OF  THE  BRAIN  find  ample  protec- 
tion in  the  Walls  of  the  Head,  in  which  also  are  lodged 
the  organs  of  observation  needed  by  the  Mind  in  explor- 
ing the  External  World,  and  by  which  it  is  warned  of 
dangers  yet  at  a  distance  —  the  upper  and  back  parts  of 
the  wall  being  covered  by  the  warmth-preserving  hair. 

34.  THE   FRAME   OF   THE   HEAD   is   divisible    into 
those  parts  that  constitute  the  lower  and   front   part, 
called  the  Faciiim,  in  which  are  the  Organs  of  Observa- 
tion  (organs  of  sense)  ;  and  the  upper  and  back  part, 
called  the  Cranium,  and  which  encloses  the  brain. 

35.  THE  ORGANS  FOR  OBSERVATION  may  with  pro- 
priety be  classed  with   the  Contents  of  the  Walls,  as 
they  are  special  to  the  head,  their  like  not  being  needed 
or  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  body. 


Ganglia. 


VP 

Nose. 


Mouth. 

37.  THE  EAR,  EYE,  NOSE,  AND  MOUTH  MUST  BE  CON- 
NECTED with  the  central  Ganglia,  as  they  are,  by  white 
pulpy  cords  called  Nerves,  and  all  the  special  organs 
must  be  supplied  with  blood  through  tubes  interwoven 
throughout.  These  are  called  general  organs,  because 

they  exist  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 

"  Ganglia. 


f  Special 


38.     THE   WHOLE    CONTENTS   of] 
the  Walls  of  the  Head  are  1 


Ear. 
Eye. 

Nose. 
Mouth. 


39.  THE  PROPER  WALLS  OF  THE  HEAD  ARE  COMPOS- 
ED of,  1st,  a  strong  Framework,  called  the  Skull  or  Skel- 
eton of  the  Head ; 


33.  What  do  —find?    84.  How  is  —  divisible?    35.  How  may  ~  be  classed? 
36.  What  are  —  ?    37.  How  must  —  ?    38.  What  are  —  ?    89.  Of  what  are  ~-  1st? 


30 


GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 


FIG.  47 


Fig.  47  represents 
the  Skull;  1,  2,  3,  4, 
is  the  Cranium,  and 
all  the  parts  below 
and  in  front  are  the 
Facium,  (except  such 
as  are  seen  in  the  sock- 
et of  the  eye,)  inclu- 
ding the  part  marked 
d,  in  which  the  inner 
ear  is  lodged  :  in  ear- 
liest life  it  is  a  dis- 
tinct bone,  and  in 
some  animals  always 
remains  so. 

2d,  Means  for 
producing  mo- 
tion, called  mus- 
cles, (lean  meat, 
as  it  is  commonly 
called,)  having  the  power  of  shortening  or  contracting 
under  proper  influences,  and  which  can  be  felt  working 

under  the  skin  of 
the  face  when 
chewing  or  other 
facial  motions  are 
made; 

Fig.  48  represents 
the  muscles  of  the 
right  Head;  2,  5, 
move  the  scalp ;  3,  4, 
5,  act  on  the  ear;  7, 
the  circular  (orbicu- 
laris)  muscle  that  clos- 
es the  eye ;  17,  "  the 
neck-cord,"  draws 
down  the  point  back 
of  the  ear  toward  the 
upperend  of  the  breast 
bone;  16,  masseter, 
used  and  easily  felt  in 
chewing ;  8  to  13,  mus- 
cles that  act  on  the 
nose  and  mouth.  (For 
full  description,  see 
Synthesis.) 


FIG.  48. 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   THE   BODY. 


31 


3d,  The  muscles  must  be  connected  with  the  central 
Ganglia  by  nerves ; 

4th,  The  whole  must  be  covered  with  skin,  also  to 
be  connected  with  the  central  Ganglia  by  nerves ;  and 


FIG.  49. 


Fig.  49  is  a  beautiful  representation  of  the  superficial  nerves  of  the 
right  Head  and  Neck,  which  will  be  particularly  interesting  to  those 
troubled  with  neuralgia  of  the  face,  since  they  can  appreciate  the  fact  that 
if  a  main  branch  of  the  nerves  is  affected,  the  pain  may  seem  to  be  at 
many  points,  though  most  of  the  nerves  shown  are  motory ;  1,  being  the 
Facial,  through  which  the  muscles  of  the  face  are  controlled  by  the  will, 
and  the  avenue  through  which  they  are  a.cted  upon  by  the  emotions  and 
expressions  caused.  The  bunch  of  nerves,  25,  Infra-orbital,  and  27,  Infe- 
rior-dental, extending  to  the  upper  and  lower  lips,  are  especially  noticeable. 


Describe  Fig.  47.    Of  what  are  the  Walls  of  the  Head  composed,  2d  ?   3d  ?  4th  ? 
Describe  Fig  48.    Describe  Fig.  49. 


32 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


Fig.  50 
represents  a 
part  of  the 
facium  remo- 
ved so  that 
the  course 
of  certain 
nerves,  the 
Tri  •  Facial, 
may  be  trac- 
ed. Branch- 
es are  rep- 
resented as 
commencing 
in  the  teeth, 
tongue,  nose, 
eye  -  socket, 
and  forehead, 
undthetrnnks 
extending  in- 
to the  Crani- 
um at  1,  2 
(25,  27,  see 
Fig.  49). 


Fig.  51  re- 
presents the 
connection  of 
nerves  with 
the  inferior 
parts  of  the 
right  Brains, 
C,  c,  and  me- 
dulla oblon  - 
gata,  m,  o, 
which  have 
been  divided 
from  the  left 
ones  on  the 
middle  line 
of  the  Head. 
S,  1st  and  2d 
spinal  nervea 


Describe  Fig.  50.     Have  you  compared  25  and  27  with  the  same  numbers  In 
Fig.  49?    Describe  51. 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    THE   BODY.  ?3 

5th,  All  the  organs  of  the  Head- Walls  must  have 
blood-tubes  interwoven  through  them ;  or  in  tabular  form, 

(  Skeleton. 

AC\       m  Muscles. 

4U.     THE  GENERAL  OKGANS  of  the  Head-Walls  J  Nerves 

Skin. 
FIG.  52.  [Blood-tubes. 


Fig.  52  rep- 
resents a  sec- 
tion of  the 
skin, the  right 
half  remov 
ed;  superficial 
Blood  -  tubes 
of  the  Right 
Head ;  the 
darker  net- 
work, veins ; 
the  beaded 
net-work  the 
lymphatics, 
connectedbe- 
low  the  ear 
with  small 
organs,called 
the  lymphat- 
ic glands. 


41.  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  WALLS  OF  THE  HEAD  are 
all  general,  their  like  being  found  in  various  other  parts 
of  the  body. 


5th.     What  parts  of  the  Head- walls  have  Blood-tabes  ?    Why  ?    Describe  Fig. 
52.    40.  What  are  —  ?    41     Where  are  —  foun<i  ? 
o* 


34  GENERAL  ANALYSIS. 

42.  UNITING  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  CONTENTS  OP 
THOSE  OF  THE  WALLS  shows  that  the  whole  Head  is 
composed  of  but  ten  different  kinds  of  Organs,  five  of 
them  special  and  five  general,  just  equalling  the  ten 
digits. 


Special, 
(right  hand 
beqin  with 


43.  ORGANS  OF  THE  HEAD 


General, 
(left  hand 
close  with 


Ganglia. 

Ear. 

Eye. 

Nose. 

Mouth. 

Skeleton. 

Muscles. 

Nerves. 

Skin. 

Blood-tubes. 


thumb.) 

44.  THE  HEAD,  composed  of  Walls  and  their  Con- 
tents, may  well  be  called  the  capitol  of  the  body,  since  the 
mind  is  there  enthroned  in  the  midst  of  its  legislative 
halls,  its  courts,  its  audience-rooms,  and  its  executive 
chambers,  fortified  as  in  a  citadel,  with  its  picket-posts 
for  observation  on  the  very  outworks.     It  is  also  truly 
the  Head-member  of  the  body,  containing  within  itself 
the  hints  of  what  is  required  of  all  the  rest.     The  Ear 
and  Eye  suggest  the  desirableness  of  information,  the  nose 
speaks  of  the  importance  of  air,  the  mouth  argues  for 
water  and  food,  the  hair  illustrates  the  need  of  clothing. 

45.  THE  USES  OF  THE  HEAD,  not  its  position  nor  its 
structure,  give  it  preeminence ;  indeed,  its  uses  give  it 
its  position  and  structure. 

46.  LOCOMOTION  OF  THE  HEAD  is  the  next  thing  es- 
sential to  the  performance  of  its  uses,  for  it  must  be 
carried  up  to  the  mountain-tops  and  down  into  the  bow- 
els of  the  earth,  that  the  mind  may  search  the  truths  of 
nature  and  be  nourished ;  it  must  also  be  moved  from 
place  to  place,  that  it  may  be  itself  nourished ;   it  must 
also  be  moved  without  jar  or  shock,  and  be  able  to  turn 
its  face  upward  to  the  sky,  downward  to  the  earth,  or 
around  toward  any  part  of  the  horizon. 


42.  What  does  —  prove  ?    48.    Explain  table  of  — .    44.  What  may  the  Head 
be  called?  45.  What  do— give?  46.  Why  is  —  necessary? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF  THE   BODY.  35 

47.  THREE  MEMBERS  of  the  Body  are   necessary 
to  allow  all  that  the  Head  requires  in  regard  to  motion. 

SECOND  MEMBER  OF  THE  BODY. 

48.  THE  NECK  PERFORMS  very  similar  offices  in  ref- 
erence to  the  head  as  the  trunk  does  in  the  same  regard ; 
but  in  some  of  its  offices  the  trunk  is  so  different  from  the 
neck,  which  is  no  part  of  the  head,  that  it  is  best  to  con- 
sider the  neck  as  a  distinct  member. 

49.  THE  USES  OF  THE  NECK  are,  to  elevate   the 
head  above  the  shoulders  and  allow  it  considerable  lati- 
tude of  motion,  to  assist  in  carrying  it  without  jars,  to 
move  it  vertically,  as  in  affirmative  nodding,  to  rotate  it, 
as  in  negation,  and  to  move  it  from  side  to  side. 

50.  THE  NECK  MUST  BE  COMPOSED  of  a  framework 
or  skeleton  of  several  pieces  movable  upon  each  other ; 
of  muscles  that  by  contraction  move  the  head ;  of  nerves; 
of  skin,  and  of  blood-tubes  interwoven  throughout ;  be- 
ing the  same  kind  of  organs  as  the  general  organs  of  the 
head,  only  differing  in  use,  form,  and  position. 

f  Skeleton. 

Muscles. 
THE  NECK -j  Nerves. 

Skin. 
[Blood-tubes. 

THIRD  MEMBER  OF  THE  BODY. 

51.  THE  TRUNK  (it  should  never  be  called  the  body, 
of  which  it  is  only  a  part)  has  .a  double  relation  to  the 
Head,  that  of  supporting  it  and  that  of  supplying  it 
with  bloo^ 

52.  THE  TRUNK  is  DIVISIBLE,  like  the  Head,  into 
two  classes  of  parts,  the  walls  and  their  contents,  corre- 
sponding to  the  two  classes  of  ideas  or  double  relations 
to  be  found  in,  it.     (See  PL  7,  Fig.  2.) 


47.  For  what  are  —  necessary?    48.  What  does  —  ?  49.  What  are  —  ?  50.  How 
—  ?    Write  table  of  —  ?    51.  What  has  —  ?    52.  How  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  2,  PI.  7. 


36 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


FIG.  54. 


FIG.  55. 


Fig.  54  represents  the  front  part  of  the  Trunk-walls  removed,  exposing 
their  contents.  Above  in  the  neck,  T,  the  Thyroid  gland,  is  seen,  on  each 
side  of  which  an  artery  stretches  up  from  the  Heart  below,  hidden  except 
a  small  part,  H,  by  the  Lungs,  L  L,  on  each  side,  upon  which  the  outline  of 
the  removed  ribs  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  D,  Diaphragm,  arching 
quite  across  the  body,  as  shown  in  Fig.  60.  L,  Liver,  S,  Stomach,  nearly 
empty,  c  c  c,  colon,  III.  small  Intestines.  The  ribs  are  cut  farther  back 
above  than  below  the  diaphragm. 

Fig.  55  is  like  Fig.  54,  except  that  the  ribs  of  the  chest  are  cut  still 
farther  back,  and  the  lungs  made  to  recede  and  expose  the  Heart  and  large 
vessels  more  to  view. 

These  beautiful  cuts  are  taken  from  Bennett's  magnificent  work  on 
practical  medicine,  being  copied  by  him  from  the  excellent  work  of  Sibson. 
They  truly  represent  the  position  of  the  organs. 

53.  THE  SUPPORT  AND  MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  HEAD  re- 
quire that  the  Trunk-walls  shall  be  composed  of  four  class- 
es of  parts,  one  fixed  pr  permanent,  upon  which  the  others 
can  move,  one  an  elastic  support ;  the  third  must  consist 


Describe  Fles.  54,  55. 
pans  .in-  shown  i:i  it?    5-: 


Which  part  of  the  Figs.  Is  called  the  chest?     What  or- 
W hat  do  —  require? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    BODY. 


37 


of  levers  to  assist  in  producing  motions  more  easily,  and 
the  fourth  of  the  muscles  that  act  on  the  levers. 

54.     THE  TRUNK-WALLS  ARE  DIVISIBLE  into  the  Pel- 
vic, the  Columnar,  the  costal  (from  costa,  rib),  and  the 

abdominal. 

Pelvic. 


Abdominal. 

55.  THE  PELVIC  PORTION  OF  THE  TRUNK-  WALLS  HAS 
FOR  ITS  FRAMEWORK  a  very  notable  broad  ring  called  the 
Pelvis,  composed  of  several  pieces  so  bound  together  that 
they  are  immovable  upon  eacli  other  and  are  as  a  unit. 

56.  THE  PELVIS  is  that  part  of  the  framework  of 
the  Body  that  is  fixed  in  relation  to  all  the  rest,  and 
about  which  all  the  rest  move;  beneath  it  the  lower  ex- 
tremities walk,  and  above  it  the  back  is  flexible  ;  it  is 
the  dead-point  in  the  motions  of  the  body,  and  in  its 
want  of  motion  is  only  comparable  to  the  cranial  part 
of  the  head. 

FIG.  56. 


Fig,  56  represents  the  Pelvic  Ring  seen  from  above,  the  upper  margin 
of  which  is  several  inches  above  the  lower. 

57.     THE  PELVIC  RING  or  bowl  is  not  placed  horizon- 


54.  How— ?     Write  table.      55,    What  has—  ?     56.  What  is  —  ?     Describe 
Fig.  56.     5T.  How  is  —  placed? 


38  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

tally  nor  vertically,  but  at  an  angle  to  the  direction  of 
the  spinal  column  and  of  the  lower  extremities;  and 
from  the  irregularities  of  its  form,  has  a  favorable  influ- 
ence in  preventing  jars  from  passing  from  the  lower  ex- 
tremities to  the  spinal  column.  (See  Fig.  58.) 
FIG.  57. 


Fig.  57  represents  a  front  view  of  the  Pelvic  Bowl,  more  vertical  than 
when  in  its  natural  position.  1,  2,  the  upper  surface  of  the  sacrum,  on 
which  the  spinal  column  rests ;  4,  body  of  the  sacrum ;  22,  point  of  union 
between  right  and  left  pelvis ;  7,  8,  side  ridge  of  hip-bones ;  11,  11,  sockets 
for  thigh  bones. 

58.  THE  COLUMNAR  PORTION  OF  THE  TRUNK-WALLS 
HAS  FOR  rrs  FRAMEWORK  an  exceedingly  flexible,  elastic 
column,  called  the  spinal  column,  from  the  number  of 
spines  or  projecting  points  on  its  back  parts,  that  serve 
as  short  levers  in  controlling  its  motions. 

59.  THE  SPINAL  COLUMN  is  a  series  of  springs,  twen- 
ty-four in  number,  including  those  of  the  neck,  of  an 
elastic  gristle  or  cartilage,  separated  from  each  other  by 
bones  called  vertebrae,  the  size  and  thickness  of  which, 
like  those  of  the  springs  or  cushions  between  them,  dif- 
fer in  different  parts  of  the  column.     They  have  short 
arms  extending  out  on  each  side  of  the  back  of  their 
bodies  or  main  part,  with  branches  up  and  down  to  form 
joints  with  those  above  and  below,  and  unite  together 

Describe  Fig.  57.  58.  What  has  — ?  What  is  the  most  conspicuous  property 
of  the  gristle  of  the  ear  or  nose  ?  59.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF   THE   BODY.  39 

FIG.  60.  FIG.  61. 


Fig.  58,  framework  of  trunk.  Fig.  59,  spinal  column  ;  1,  atlas  (Fig.  61, 
upper,  Fig.  60,  lower  view  of  same) ;  2,  dentatus  (Fig.  62,  upper  view) ; 
2  to  3,  other  cervical  vertebrae  (Fig.  63,  upper  view  of) ;  4  to  6,  dorsal 
vertebra  (Fig.  64,  side  view  of  one) ;  5  to  7,  lumbar  vertebrae  (Fig.  65,  side 
view  of  one) ;  8  to  9,  sacrum ;  below  9,  coxcyx. 


40  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

behind  to  form  the  spinous  processes  or  spines,  thus 
leaving  a  hole  through  each  and  throughout  the  spinal 
column,  forming  a  very  important,  well-protected  canal, 
called  the  spinal  canal.  (See  Figs.  60  to  63.) 

60.  THE  COSTAL  PORTION  OF  THE  TRUNK-WALLS 
MUST  HAVE  FOB  ITS  FRAMEWORK  a  strong  yet  slightly 
flexible  set  of  levers;  for  though  the  springs  or  interver- 
tebral  substances  of  the  spinal  column  will  yield,  they 
must  be  quite  firm  in  order  to  support  their  burdens,  and 
therefore  not  made  to  yield  without  considerable  force; 
and  the  head  is  so  much  elevated  that  it  acts  with  a 
great  purchase  or  leverage,  and  long  levers  are  required 
to  stay  it. 

Gl.  THE  RIBS  are  levers  of  a  peculiar  form,  attached 
by  movable  joints  to  the  spinal  column,  and  curving 
around  and  downward :  all  but  the  lower  ones  are  very 
flexibly  attached  to  the  breast-bone  or  sternum  in  front, 
thus  forming  the  movable  and  flexible  framework  of 
the  sides  of  a  box,  the  passive  elastic  character  of  which 
will  be  found  of  as  much  use  as  the  activity  conferred 
by  its  muscles  when  they  are  added. 

f  Pelvis. 

FRAMEWORK  OF  TRUNK-WALLS     .     .     J  *Pmal  Column. 

I   KIDS, 

[Sternum,  or  breast-bone. 

62.  THE  ABDOMINAL  PORTION  OF  THE  TRUNK-WALLS 
has  no  framework,  except  as  the  ribs  above  and  the  pel- 
vis .  below  may  be  considered  as  such,  but  is  composed 
of  the  muscles,  nerves,  skin,  and  blood-tubes,  that  close 
across  from  the  pelvis  up  to  the  ribs. 

63.  THREE    CAVITIES   EXIST   WITHIN  THE   TRUNK- 
WALLS,  corresponding   to   the  Pelvic,  Abdominal,  and 
Costal  or  Chest- Walls,  and  similarly  named.     The  for- 
mer two  are  not  divided  internally,  both  being  usually 
called  as  one,  the  abdominal ;   the  two  latter  are  parted 
by  what  is  called  the  Diaphragm. 


Describe  Figs  58  to  65.    60.  What  must  —  ?    61.  What  arc  —  ?    Write  oat  ta- 
ble of—.    62.  How  is  —  composed  ?    63.  "What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    BODY.  41 

64.  THE   DIAPHRAGM    is   a   thin,   active    partition, 
chiefly  muscular,  attached 

.  . 

by  its  margin  to  the  lower 
border  of  the  chest,  and 
arching  upward,  as  seen 
by  the  figure  of  it,  Fig.  1, 
Plate  7,  also  Fig.  66. 

Fig.  66  represents  front  walls  of 
chest  removed,  2  being  upper  ribs 
attached  to  1,  the  upper  portion  of 
sternum,  of  which  7  is  the  lower 
portion,  to  each  side  of  which  the 
gristly  ends  of  the  lower  ribs  are 
attached.  3,  the  spinal  column. 
4,  the  centre,  and  5,  6,  the  side  arch- 
es of-the  Diaphragm. 

65.  THE    MOVEMENTS 
OF  THE  TRUNK-WALLS  next 
require      muscles,      which 

must  be  connected  with  the  brain  (so,  indeed,  all  parts 
of  the  Trunk-walls  must  be)  by  means  of  nerves,  and 
then  the  whole  must  be  covered  by  the  skin,  and  inter- 
woven by  the  blood-tubes,  making  up  the  five  general 
organs,  similar,  except  in  size  and  form,  to  those  of  the 
head  and  neck. 

f  Skeleton. 

Muscles.  (Pelvic. 

TRUNK-WALLS  -I  Nerves.  TRUNK-CAVITIES  •{  Abdominal. 

Skin.  (  Costal. 

(  Blood-tubes. 

66.  THE   BLOOD-MAKING   OR   SANGUIFICATORY   OR- 
GANS, forming  the  Contents  of  the  Trunk- walls,  require 
exactly  the  space  afforded  by  the  cavities  of  the  Trunk- 
walls,  and  exactly  the  same  structure  that  they  have,  so 
that,  if  they  had  been  made  for  the  purpose  of  enclosing, 
protecting,  carrying,  and  assisting  the  Contents,  nothing 
could  have  been  added,  removed,  nor  changed.      The 


64.  What  is  -  ?  Describe  Fig  66.     65.  What  do  —require?    Write  tables  of—. 
3.  What  do  —  require' 


42  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

elasticity  of  the  spinal  column,  on  which  the  contents  are 
hung,  the  mobility  of  the  ribs,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
abdominal  walls,  are  remarkable  illustrations  of  the 
double  utility  of  the  Trunk-walls. 

FOURTH    MEMBER    OF   THE    BODY. 

67.  THE  TRUE  MEMBERS   OF  LOCOMOTION  are  the 
Lower  Extremities,  composed  of  two  levers,  having  their 
lower  ends  enlarged  to  furnish  a  better  support  on  the 
ground. 

68.  THE  LOWER  EXTREMITIES  MUST  BE  FURNISHED 
with  three  joints  :  (1st)  the  upper  ones,  by  which  the  ex- 
tremities are  attached  to  the  pelvis,  must  be  rotary,  to 
allow  the  levers  to  move  in  every  direction ;    (2d)  the 
levers  must  be  divided  in  the  middle  by  means  of  a 
hinge-joint  backward,  to  allow  the  lever  to  be  readily 
raised  over  an  obstacle,  or  progression  to  be  made  up  or 
down  an  incline,  or  upon  steps  ;  (3d)  near  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  lever  it  must  be  divided  by  another  joint 
of  considerable  mobility,  to  allow  the  broader  part  to 
rest  securely  on  every  kind  of  surface. 

69.  THE   LOWER  EXTREMITIES  ARE   COMPOSED   of 
three  parts,  the  upper  and  lower  leg,  and  the  foot ;  and 
are  furnished  with  three  main  joints,  the  hip,  the  knee, 
and  the  ankle. 

70.  THE  SIMPLE  USE  OF  THE  LOWER  EXTREMITIES  is 
to  cause  motion,  and  each  of  their  divisions  is  composed 
of  a  Framework  or  Skeleton,  Muscles,  Nerves,  Skin,  and 
Blood-tubes. 

f  Skeleton. 
I  Muscles. 

LOWER  EXTREMITIES •{  Nerves. 

Skin. 
[  Blood-tubes. 

71.  BY  THE  FLEXIONS  OF  THE  LOWER  EXTREMITIES, 

very  much  of  the  jar  which  in  walking  acts  upon  the 


67.  What  are  — »    68   With  what  must-?    69.  Of  how  many  parts  are -? 
70.  What  is  -  ?    Write  table  of  —     71.  What  is  pained  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   THE    BODY. 


43 


foot  is  prevented  from  acting 
on  the  head.  When  unexpect- 
edly a  person  steps  down  upon 
the  ground  with  the  limbs 
straight,  a  shock  is  felt  that  a 
bent  or  flexed  state  of  the  limbs 
would  have  prevented.  The  ir- 
regular form  of  the  pelvis  and 
the  hip-joint,  not  being  directly 
under  the  spinal  column,  nor  m 
its  plane,  as  well  as  the  curva- 
tures of  the  spinal  column,  as- 
sist in  the  same  result  of  pre. 
serving  the  brain  from  receiving 
jars. 

72.  THE  CENTRAL  POR- 
TIONS OF  THE  BONES  ARE  CON- 
STRUCTED either  as  canals,  or 
as  cells,  like  those  of  a  sponge, 
filled  with  marrow,  which 
serves  to  make  the  framework 
lighter,  as  a  stock  of  food  in 
time  of  need,  and  especially  to 
deaden  the  jars  that  are  pass- 
ing upward  to  assault  the 
brain,  and  annoy  it. 


FIG.  67. 


Fig.  67  is  a  plan  to  represent 
how  the  force  with  which  the 
foot  strikes  the  ground  is  sent  off 
in  the  directions  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  so 
that  but  little  reaches  the  head. 
Those  are  but  a  few  of  the  points 
of  dispersion. 


73.  Illus. — If  in  sickness,  or  from  exposure  to  starva- 
tion, the  marrow  of  the  bones  is  exhausted,  each  step, 
unless  taken  with  great   care,  jars  the   brain  very  un- 
pleasantly. 

74.  UNDER  THE   BRAIN,  and  between  it   and   the 
skull,  there  is  a  sponge-like  cushion,  the  spaces  of  which 
are  filled  with  a  watery  fluid ;  while  a  portion  and  con- 
tinuation of  the  same  extends  down  around  the  spinal 
cord,  or  large  bundle  of  nerves  that   nearly  but   not 


Describe  Fig.  67.    72.  How  are  —  ?    73.  What  Illus.  to  show  value  of  marrow  ? 
74.  What  is  —  ? 


44 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


quite  fills  the  ca-  FIG.  68. 

nal  throughout 
the  spinal  col- 
umn. 

75.  WHEN 
THE  SPINAL  COL- 
UMN IS  FLEXED, 

the  central  canal 
is  lessened,  and 
apart  of  the  fluid 
within  is  instant- 
ly pressed  up  into 
cushion     beneath     the 
brain,  holding  it  firm- 
ly, as  in   a   vice,   but 
with  the  gentleness  of 
an  infant. 

76.  THE   PROTEC- 
TIONS OF  THE  BRAIN 
from  jars,  found  in  the 
three     members,     the 
neck,  trunk,  and  lower 
extremities,  are:  (1st) 
the     elastic     springs, 
cushions,    gristles     or 
cartilages  of  the  spinal 
column;  (2d)  the  fluid 
of   the    spinal    canal ; 
(3d)     the   marrow    in 

FIFTH    MEMBER     OF     THE    BODY. 

77.  THE  MIND  NEXT  REQUIRES  means  for  handling 
the  various  objects  of  its  regard.     These  means  are  fur- 
nished in  the  upper  extremities. 

78.  THE  UPPER  EXTREMITIES  are  levers  of  a  some- 
what more  complex  structure  than  the  lower  extremities, 


the  bones;  (4th) 
the  gristle  of 
the  joints;  (5th) 
the  curvatures 
of  the  column, 
pelvis,  and  the 
bones  of  the  ex- 
tremities ;  and 
(6th)  the  bend- 
ing of  the  limbs 
at  the  joints. 


Fig.  68  is  a  plan  of  a  sec- 
tion of  the  Head  and  spinal 
column.  C,  the  large  brain,  c, 
the  small  brain,  and  sc,  spinal 
cord  ;  a  a  is  intended  to  convey 
a  good  idea  of  the  fluid-filled 
cushion  beneath  the  Brain 
and  around  the  spinal  cord 
for  its  whole  length,  except  at 
points  where  nerves  leave  it. 
The  fluid  will  always  move 
more  quickly  than  the  less  fluid 
Brain,  and  of  course  will,  in 
case  of  rapid  motion  of  the 
head,  be  impelled  into  that 
part  of  the  cushion  against 
which  the  brain  will  be  thrown, 
and  thus  the  cushion  will  al- 
ways be  thickest  where  the 
thickness  is  most  needed. 


75.  What  effect  -  ? 
78.  What  are  -  • 


Describe  Fig.  68.     76.  What  are   -  ?    77.  What  does  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    BODY.  45 

as  a  greater  variety  of  motions  and  more  extended  ones 
are  required;  but  the  general  character  of  the  two  must 
be  similar. 

79.  THE  UPPER  EXTREMITIES  ARE  COMPOSED  of  the 
shoulders,  the  upper  and  lower  arms,  and  the  hands. 

80.  THE  SHOULDERS  ARE  NOT  A  PART  OF  THE  TRUNK, 
but  are  movable  upon  the  upper  part  of  it,  in  order  to 
bestow  more  extended  motion  upon  the  arms  and  hand, 
that  must  serve  the  mind  by  great  latitude  of  motion  at 
times.     They  are  hinged  through  the  inner  end  of  the 
collar-bone  to  the  upper  end  of  the  breast-bone,  which  is 
the  centre  of  a  partial  circumference,  through  which  the 
shoulder  can  move. 

81.  THE  UPPER  ARM  must,  like  the  upper  leg,  be 
fastened  above  by  a  rotary  joint,  so  as  to  have  motion  in 
every  direction. 

82.  THE  LOWER  ARM,  or  the  forearm,  must  be  fast- 
ened to  the  upper  by  a  hinge-joint,  allowing  upward  or 
forward  motion,  just  the  reverse  of  that  of  the  lower 
leg. 

83.  Inf. — THE  SIMILARITY  OF  THE  UPPER  AND  LOWER 
EXTREMITIES  was  not  accidental,  nor  a  necessity,  but  is 
owing  to  the  similarity  of  purpose ;  for  in  any  case  of 
dissimilarity  of  purpose  there  is  a  corresponding  dissimi- 
larity of  structure  in  them. 

84.  THE  ENTIRE  LENGTH  OF  THE  FOREARM  MUST  BE 
A  JOINT,  adapted  to  allowing  a  rotary  motion  of  the  hand, 
which  could  not  be  gained  by  any  construction  of  the 
wrist-joint  5  but  by  simply  rolling  the  lower  end  of  one 
bone  of  the  lower  arm  over  the  other,  the  hand  being 
attached  to  the  former  is  carried  with  it  and  made  prone. 

85.  THE  HAND  is  ATTACHED  to  one  of  the  bones  of 
the  lower  arm  by  a  compound  joint,  allowing  less  mo- 
tion than  the  rotary,  and  not  restricting  it  as  much  as 
the  hinge. 

86.  ALL  THE  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  UPPER  EXTREMITIES, 


79.  Of  what  arc  -  9    80.  What,  are  -  ?    81.  What  must  shoulder  joint  be  ?    82. 
How  must  the  -  be  fastened  ?  88  What  is  Inf.  in  regard  to  -  ?  84.  Why  must  —  ? 


46  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

being  intended  merely  for  motion,  are  composed  of  Skel- 
eton, Muscles,  Nerves,  Skin,  and  Blood-tubes,  similar  to 

the  general  organs  of  the  other  members. 

'  Skeleton. 
Muscles. 

UPPER  EXTREMITIES •(  Nerves. 

Skin. 
Blood  tubes. 

&IXTH   MEMBER    OF     THE   BODY. 

87.  IT  WILL   BE    CONVENIENT   TO  THE   MlND,    besides 

the  means  thus  far  described,  to  have  a  special  way  of 
communicating  its  thoughts  to  others,  and  of  seeking  in- 
formation that  it  may  use  while  all  the  other  parts  are 
busy. 

88.  THE  LARYNX  is  the  sixth  member  of  the  body. 
It  is  the  upper  portion  of  the  windpipe,  often   called 
Adam's  Apple ;  is  the  seat  of  the  voice,  that  is,  where  the 
full  tones  are  produced.    It  is  frequently  called  the  vocal 
organs. 

89.  IT  WOULD  SEEM  TO  MANY,  that  the  Larynx  is  a 
part  of  the  neck,  and  so  it  might  be  termed ;  but  its  office 
is  very  distinct  from  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  neck, 
and  though  anatomically  small,  and  not  by  a  cursory  ob- 
servation to  be  distinctly  honored  as  a  member,  Physi- 
ology at  once  recognizes  its  eminent  merits,  and  exalts  it 
to  its  true  position,  while  Hygiene  confirms  and  Mental 
Philosophy  applauds  the  decision. 

90.  The  LARYNX  MAINTAINS  ITS  DIGNITY  as  a  mem- 
ber by  requiring  for  its  composition,  Skeleton,  Muscles, 
Nerves,  Skin,  and  Blood-tubes. 

{Skeleton. 
Muscles. 
Nerves. 
Skin. 
Blood-tubes. 

91.  THE  FORM  AND  CONDITION  or  THE  STRUCTURE 
OF  THE  BODY  are  thus,  by  the  uses  required  of  them, 
shown  to  be  not  an  accident,  but  the  result  of  utilities ; 


85.  How  is  -  ?   86.  How  are  -  composed  ?    Write  table  of  -.    ST.  What  will  — ? 
88.  What  is-?  89.  What  —  ?  90.  How  floes  -?  Write  table  of -.  91.  Of  what  are 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF   THE   BODY.  47 

and  the  more  the  uses  of  any  animal's  body  shall  ap- 
proach those  of  man,  the  more  nearly  will  the  form  and 
structure  approach  the  Human. 

92.  THE  BODY  is  DIVISIBLE  into,  or  composed  of,  six 
members,  because  the  six,  and  no  more,  are  necessary 
for  the  perfect  development  of  the  mind. 

H,  HEAD. 

N,  Neck. 

T,  Trunk. 

lx,  lower  extremities. 

ux,  upper  extremities. 

1,    larynx. 

98.  THEEE  OF  THE  MEMBERS  are  essential  to  life; 
hence  in  the  table  their  names  are  printed  with  capital, 
the  other  three  with  lower-case,  initials. 

94.  THE  Six  MEMBERS  OF  THE  BODY  are  equally  in- 
dicated by  a  superficial  view  of  it,  or  by  a  synthetic 
construction  of  the  five  general  Organs  and  the  Contents 
of  the  Head  and  Trunk-walls. 

95.  THE   SKELETON  is   peculiarly   and    distinctly 
divisible  into  that  of  the  Head,  the  Neck,  the  Trunk, 
the  lower  extremities,  the  upper  extremities,  and  the 
larynx;  though  the  latter  is  not  shown  in  connection 
with  the  skeleton  of  the  other  members,  since  it  is  not 
jointed  to  any  part  of  them.     If  shown  in  the  neck,  it 
must  be  disconnected ;  therefore  it  may  better  be  shown 
apart.     (See  Plate  1,  Fig.  1.) 

96.  THE  MUSCLES  ALSO  MAY  BE  CLASSED  as  those  of 
the  Head,  the  Neck,  the  Trunk,  the  lower  extremities, 
the  upper  extremities,   and  the   larynx,  according   to 
the  motions  they  are  adapted  to  produce.     (See  Plate  2, 
F,g.  1.) 

97.  THE  NERVES  cannot  be  classed  as  distinctly  as 
the  Skeleton  and  Muscles  according  to  the  six  members, 
since  most  of  the  nerves  are  connective  between  the 
brain  and  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  those  connect- 
ing the  more  distant  parts  must  extend  through  the 

—  the  result  ?  92.  Into  what  is  —  ?  Write  table  of  — .  93.  Why  are  three  members 
in  different  letters  ?  94.  What  indicates  —  ?  95.  How  is  —  divisible  ?  Describe  Fig. 

"•>  o* 


48  «;  i:\ERAL    ANALYSIS. 

nearer  parts,  and  in  their  course,  as  they  approach,  they 
unite  in  the  same  sheath,  forming  larger  bundles,  in 
which  the  fibres  are  so  small  as  not  to  be  distinguishable ; 
and  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  origin  of  each  when 
thus  united.  (See  Plate  3,  Fig.  1.) 

98.  THE  NERVES  ARE  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  and  for 
different  uses,  and  therefore  a  better  classification  than 
that  by  members  can  usually  be  made. 

99.  FOR   SOME   PURPOSES,  TO    CLASS  THE  NERVES  by 

the  members  in  which  their  outer  ends  are  found  is  very 
advantageous,  as  it  would  always  be  if  their  course  was 
distinct  from  each  member  to  the  brain. 

100.  THE  SKIN  MAY  BE  CLASSED,  as  it  usually  is,  by 
members,  with  great  propriety,  though  it  is  merely  a 
coveiing  in  its  relations  to  the  parts  beneath  ;  as  to  the 
mind,  any  of  its  parts  may  be  named  by  anything  that 
will  distinguish  them.     (See  Fig.  4,  Plate  7.) 

101.  THE  BLOOD-TUBES,  being,  like  the  nerves,  of  a 
connective  character,  cannot  very  distinctly  be  classed 
by  the  members,  yet  to  an  extent  this  is  always  done, 
and  with  advantage ;  and  the  branching  of  the  blood- 
tubes  indicates  distinctly  the  six  members.    (See  Plate  5.) 

102.  THE  CONTENTS  OF  THE   HEAD   AND  TRUNK- 
WALLS  will  be  respectively  located  in  the   Head   and 
Trunk. 

103.  THE  USES  BY  ANALYSIS,  the  structure  by  Syn- 
thesis, and  common  observation,  except  as  to  the  larynx, 
would  correctly  divide  the  Body  into  its  six  members. 

104.  THE  USES  OF  THE  MEMBERS  EXHIBIT  the  neces- 
sity for,  and  the  structure  of  them  exhibits  the   fact 
of,  a  remarkable  similarity  and  simplicity  of  structure 
in  the  larger  parts  of  the  body ;  four  entire  members  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  other  two,  differing  only 
in  the  size,  form,  and  position  of  only  five  different  kinds 
of  organs,  their  substantial  and  vital  characteristics  being 


1,  PI.  1.    96.  IIow  may  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  1,  PI.  2     97  Why  cannot  the  nerves  be 
classed  by  members  ?    Describe  PI.  8.    98.  How  can  nerves  be  tietter  classed  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    BODY. 


49 


the  same  in  all  the  members ;  they  therefore  require  the 
same  treatment  in  all  the  members.  The  following  table 
exhibits  this  important  practical  idea  more  clearly : 

HEAD-walls, 

Neck, 

Trunk-walls, 

lower  extremities, 

upper  extremities, 

larynx, 

CONTENTS  of  Head-walls. " 

Contents  of  Trunk-walls. 

105.       Inf. TO  LEARN  THE    ESSENTIAL   CHARACTERIS- 
TICS   OP    ONLY    FIVE    KINDS    OF    ORGANS   IS  to  become  aC- 

quainted  with,  and  understand  how  to  provide  for  the 
welfare  of,  much  the  larger  part  of  the  body.* 


BODY 


f  Skeleton. 

Muscles. 
=  \  Nerves. 

Skin. 
[Blood-tubes. 


*  The  Teacher  can  now  present  the  sheets  exhibiting  the  Tables  of  this  chapter, 
if  he  have  them,  or  cause  the  pupils  to  produce  them,  and  also  suspend  Anatomi- 
cal Plates,  outline  diagrams,  or  whatever  will  be  illustrative,  bearing  in  mind  that 
some  truths  become  impressed  by  the  constant  action  of  their  illustrations ;  and 
on  the  other  hand,  that  the  minds  of  youth  are  always  awakened  by  something 
new.  Therefore  arrange  and  rearrange  the  old,  and  keep  always  something  in  re- 
serve, to  be  brought  out  little  by  little  at  each  exercise,  especially  if  it  is  a  review. 
It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that  pupils  often  study  through  a  book  on  Hygiene,  making 
good  recitations  at  each  lesson,  yet  in  a  short  time  know  very  little  of  the  subjects 
they  have  studied.  This  is  for  want  of  a  linked  chain  running  through  the  whole, 
and  binding  the  parts  together.  If  this  chain  is  fixed  in  the  student's  mind,  it  is 
not  necessary  for  him  to  try  to  remember  the  details,  as  they  will  suggest  them- 
selves in  connection  with  the  appropriate  link  of  the  chain  whenever  he  reviews  the 
subject.  To  make  ideas  practical,  they  must,  so  to  speak,  become  incorporated  in  the 
mind,  which  does  not  occur  until  they  have  been  again  and  again  presented  before 
It  in  various  aspects ;  after  they  have  once  been  thus  fairly  introduced,  they  never 
cease  to  exert  their  leavening  influences.  It  is  of  so  great  importance  that  a  pupil 
should  be  familiar  with  the  ideas  of  the  correct  classification  and  relations  of  parts, 
that  it  is  hardly  possible  for  him  to  analyze  and  synthesize  the  divisions  over  which 
he  passes  too  many  times.  The  object  is  to  have  him,  when  through  the  work, 
thoroughly  understand  the  subject,  not  only  what  exists,  but  the  rationale  of  it  as 
far  as  possible ;  and  where  that  cannot  be,  to  know  precisely  where  the  line  of  clear 
knowledge  is,  and  where  he  must  begin  to  search  for  that  yet  undeveloped.  Let 
the  Teacher  make  sure,  therefore,  that  every  pupil  in  the  class  understands  not  only 
that  there  are  six  members,  but  why  there  can  be  neither  more  nor  less  than  six. 
Let  him  also  be  assured,  that  each  pupil  understands  what  parts  are  composed  of 
the  five  general  organs,  and  why  there  can  be  neither  more  nor  less  than  five.  The 
relative  location  of  the  five  general  organs, which  are  at  the  surface,  which  the 
deepest,  and  which  in  the  midst  of  the-others,  should  be  made  so  familiar  to  the 
student  by  varied  questions  upon  the  structure  of  members,  that  the  Body  shall 
be  before  his  mind's  eye  like  a  transparent  structure. 

99.  Can  nerves  ever  be  classed  by  members?  100.  How  may—?  101.  How 
may  Blood-tubes  be  classed?  102.  Where  are  —located?  103.  How  would  — 
divide  the  body  ?  104.  What  do  —  ?  Write  table  of—.  105.  —  is  what  ? 


CHAPTER    III. 

SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  MEMBERS. 

GROUPS   OR   MECHANISMS. 

Mental  and  Sanguificatory. 

106.  THE  HEAD  INCLUDES  the  five  kinds  of  general 
organs  in  addition  to  the  five  kinds  composing  its  con- 
tents. 

107.  Inf. — To  UNDERSTAND  THE  HEAD  is  to  under- 
stand the  essentials  of  all  the  rest  of  the  Body  except 
the  contents  of  the  Trunk-walls. 

108.  As  THE  HE  AD- WALLS  are  wholly  composed  of 
the  five  general  organs,  and  are  also  of  use  in  protecting 
and  serving  the  brain  in  common  with  the  Neck,  Trunk- 
walls,  lower  extremities,  upper  extremities,  and  larynx, 
those  members  may  be  said  in  one  sense  to  be  the  HEAD- 
walls  extended  and  modified  in  form,  size,  and  by  posi- 
tion, to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  case. 

109.  THE  QUESTION  MIGHT  BE  ASKED,  Why,  if  the 
Trunk-walls  are  composed  of  the  five  general  organs, 
and  are  so  perfectly  adapted  to  their  contents,  may  not 
the  other  parts  be  the  extension  of  the  Trunk- walls  as 
well  as  of  the  HEAD-walls  ? 

110.  ANOTHER  CLASSIFICATION  MAY  BE  SUGGESTED 
as  follows: 


f  Skeleton. 

(  CONTENTS  OF  HEAD-WALLS  ) 

Muscles, 

BODY 

=  ]                                               [  &  or  + 

^  Nerves. 

(  Contents  of  Trunk-walls    ) 

Skin. 

^  Blood-tubes. 

106.  What  does  —  ?   107.  What  is  it  —  ?   loa  What  are  the  Head-Walls  extend- 
ed?   109.  What-?    110  What -f    Write  table. 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    MEMBERS.  51 

and  the  question  asked,  with  which  of  the  centres  do  the 
other  parts  belong  ? 

111.  TlJE  PARTS  FORMED  OF  THE  FIVE   GENERAL    OR- 
GANS evidently  should  belong  and  be  classed  with  the 
centre  that  controls  them  by  its  will,  and  not,  except  in- 
directly, to  that  which  only  feeds  them ;   they  therefore 
belong  with  the  contents  proper  of  the  Head-walls. 

112.  A  CORRECT  CLASSIFICATION,  then,  will  be   as 

follows : 

f  Skeleton, 
Muscles, 

(  Contents  of  HEAD-WALLS     &  or  +    -{  Nerves, 
BODY  .     .     =  •]  I  Skin, 

(  Contents  of  Trunk-walls  ^  Blood-tubes; 

or, 

f  HEAD-WALLS, 
Neck, 

'    I  Contents  of  HEAD-WALLS     &  or  +    J  JJ^JSJ^ 
(  Contents  of  Trunk-walls  [jjg*  extremities, 

or,  grouping  together, 


CONTENTS  OP  HEAD-WALLS  )  TT 
HEAD-WALLS,  } 

Neck, 
Trunk-walls, 


BODY  .  .  =  •{  lower  extremities, 
upper  extremities, 
larynx, 


>•  =  G'roup, 


g  j 
g  "i 


Contents  of  Trunk -walls,  =  G"roup; 

or,  the  same  in  another  form, 

HEAD-f-Neck+Trunk-walls+lower  ex.+up.  ex.+larynx=G'roup 
Contents  of  Trunk- walls =G"roup ; 

or,  by  initials, 

T»nnY  _  j  H  +  N  +  T-w  +  1  ex  +  u  ex  +  1     .     .     .  =  G' 
-  1  C  of  T-w =  G" ; 

or,  introducing  the  classification  by  members, 
ex+u  ex+1  = 


113.     BY  A  CORRECT   CLASSIFICATION   the   members 
of  the  body  are  beautifully  arranged  by  division  into 


111.  —  should  belong  to  what?    112.  What  is  —  ?    2d  form?    Write  table  of 
Groups.    2d  form  of  table.   Write  initial  table.    Write  initial  table  ef  Members. 


52 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


two  groups ;  the  first  or  prime  group,  much  the  larger, 
has  the  honorable  office  of  directly  serving  the  mind, 
and  therefore  may  be  called  the  Mental  Group,  while 
the  second,  or  secondary  as  its  name  implies,  waits  on 


FIG.  70. 


Fig.  69  rep- 
resents a  front 
view  of  Brains, 
Spinal  cord  and 
'7  nerves,  from  2 
to  13,  each  side 
being  so  similar 
that  their  doub- 
le character  is 
evident,  espe- 
cially if  com- 1 
pared  with  the 
organs  illustra- 
ted by. 

Fig.  70  repre- 
sents (Esopha- 
gus 1,  leading 
into  the  stom- 
ach 9 ;  the  large 
artery  2 ;  all 
these  parts  are 
single,  while 
the  walls  x  of 
the  Trunk  are 
double. 


the  first  by  supplying  it  with  the  life- 
giving  blood,  and  may  hence  be  called 
the  Sanguific,  Sanguificatory,  or  blood- 
making  and  supplying. 

114.  ANOTHER  PROOF  of  the  correct- 
ness of  this  classification,  and  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  prime  group,  is  that  it 
is  double,  which  the  second  is  not. 


118.  What  is  effected  -?    Describe  Fiss  69  and  70.    114  What  w  — f    Can  you 
think  of  any  objection  to  having  two  Groups  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    MEMBERS.  53 

115.  IT  is  EVIDENT  that  parts  of  the  mental  group 
must  be  double ;  a  person  could  not  walk  without  two 
lower  extremities,  and  all  the  parts  that  control  them, 
the  nerves  and  parts  of  the  brain  inclusive,  must  be 
double.     So  also  it  must  be  with  the  upper  extremities. 
All  will  allow  that  there  should  be  two  ears  and  two  eyes 
for  the  purpose  of  hearing  and  seeing  well;  but  the  same 
persons  will  not  as  readily  notice  that  there  are  two 
noses,  because  they  are  near  together,  and  are  spoken  of 
as  single,  while  practically  each  nostril'  is  a  nose.     In 
fact,  all  the  mental  class  of  organs  are,  and  of  right  ought 
to  be,  double ;  and  the  seeming  exceptions  confirming  the 
rule  will  be  accounted  for  under  synthetic  details. 

Fig.  71  represents  a  section       FIG.  71.^^^^^  '^^^^ss^^sss^ 

across  the  neck,  to  illustrate 
the  double  and  single  charac- 
ter of  parts  belonging  to  the 
two  groups.  11,  12,  13,  the 
Thyroid  Gland,  Windpipe 
or  Trachea,  and  (Esophagus 
or  meat-pipe,  are  single,  and 
belong  to  the  2d  group ;  all 
the  other  numbers  belong  to 
the  1st  group,  are  double,  and 
are  muscles,  except  14,  Blood- 
tubes  ;  28,  vertebrae;  sc,  spi- 
nal canal. 

116.  IT  MAY  APPEAR  that  some  of  the  contents  of 
the  Trunk  are  double ;  they  are  not,  properly  speaking. 
The  Lungs  are  called  right  and  left,  and  so  are  the  kid- 
neys ;  but  both  of  each  are  required  to  effect  their  func- 
tions, and  the  whole  blood  and  body  suffers  if  either  is 
deficient  in  its  duties.    Anatomically  they  may  be  spoken 
of  as  double,  but  Physiologically  they  are  considered  as 
single  and  composed  of  two  halves.  It  is  not  so  with  the 
organs  of  the  first  group ;  one  eye  does  not  enlarge  when 
the  other  is  diseased,  as  one  lung  sometimes  does,  nor 
will  the  ear  enlarge  as  one  kidney  will.     Each  lung  and 


115.  What  is  —  ?  Describe  Fig.  71.    116.  What  —  ?  What  organs  in  the  Trunk- 
walls  are  spoken  of  as  double  ?    How  are  they  Physiologically  ? 


54  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

each  kidney  might,  therefore,  be  most  properly  called 
a  half. 

117.  THE  ENTIRE  MENTAL  Group  is  double;  and 
each  part  is  to  be  spoken  of  as  Right  and  Left.  There 
are  two  Heads,  the  right  and  left,  composed  of  two 
brains,  nearly  separated  by  a  deep  fissure.  The  Cranium 
is  divisible  into  the  right  and  left.  The  Ears,  the  Eyes, 
the  Noses,  the  Mouths  are  double  so  far  as  regards  sen- 
sation. The  Muscles  are  right  and  left ;  and  although 
those  around  the  mouth  are  named  as  of  the  upper  and 
lower  lips,  or  usually  as  the  orbicularis  oris  (circular  of 
the  mouth),  as  if  a  single  muscle  swept  around  the 
mouth,  they  are  divided  by  a  thin  tendon  at  the  mid- 

FiG._72.  Fig.  72  represents  the  muscles  of 

the  face,  all  of  them  evidently  be- 
ing double,  except  13,  which  is  also 
double,  the  teudon  at  the  middle 
line  of  the  upper  and  lower  lips, 
perfectly  though  thinly,  separating 
the  right  from  the  left.  If  a  person's 
right  or  left  facial  muscles  are  par- 
I  alyzed,  he  will  be  able  to  use  only 
pthe  other  muscles  of  the  face  includ- 
that  of  both  lips  ffom  the  middle 
line,  and  by  a  little  practice  any  per- 
one  can  exhibit  the  action  of  the 
lips  of  one  side  in  talking  while  the 
other  is  quiet.  Fig.  49  also  shows 
that  each  group  of  muscles  has  its 
own  nerves. 

die  line.  The  Nerves  also  are  double.  The  skin  at  its 
surface  is  continuous,  but  when  we  pass  down  to  its 
nerves  it  is  an  organ  of  sensation,  and  composed  of 
the  right  and  left,  the  line  of  division  being  most  exactly 
marked  in  some  cases  of  paralysis,  on  one  side  of  it  sensa- 
tion being  perfect,  and  on  the  other  altogether  wanting. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  Neck  and  Walls  of  the  Trunk; 
the  Skeleton,  Muscles,  Nerves,  Skin,  and  Blood-tubes  of 
those  parts  are  exactly  double.  0 


117.  How  —  ?    Name  parts  in  detail  that  are  double.    What  is  said  of  muscle 
of  lipa  ?    Describe  Fig.  72.    What  other  parts  of  members  are  double  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OP    MEMBERS.  55 

118.  USUALLY  THE  EIGHT  GROUP  is  the  stronger, 
this  being  most  noticed  in  the  hand,  the  person  is  called 
right-handed,  but  he  is  also  right-footed,  right-faced,  and 
stronger  on  that  side  throughout  the  body. 

119.  THE  FACE  most  remarkably  shows  the  predom- 
inating character  of  one  side  or  the  other,  usually  the 
right  side,  which  from  more  active  use  exhibits  more  ex- 
pression, and  is  the  "  view  "  usually  preferred  by  those 
artists  who  take  pictures.     It  is  seldom  that  the  features 
are  well  balanced,  and  when  that  is  the  case,  the  person 
will  use  one  hand  as  well  as  the  other,  excepting  the  effect 
of  practice,  the  whole  body  being  well  balanced. 

120.  THE  LARYNX  being  also  double,  and  the  right 
and  left  frequently  not  perfectly  balanced,  the  voice  will 
seldom  be  perfectly  smooth  and  harmonious.     Neither 
the  right  nor  the  left  larynx  can  be  used  by  itself,  which 
is  the  case  with  other  parts,  but  each  is  nerved  distinctly, 
and  often  inharmoniously  ;  so  that  though,  Anatomically, 
it  might  with  great  propriety  be  spoken  of  as  composed 
of  halves,  Physiologically  and  practically  it  is  double. 

121.  The  following  table,  or  initial  synopsis,  will  be 
correct,  as  showing  what  parts  are  Right  and  Left  : 


,R  &  L 

x  +  l  =  G' 
CofT-w     ....      =  G" 

122.  THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  HUMAN  MECHAN- 
ISM INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS,  one  secondary  to  the  other, 
is  important,  as  showing  the  primary  object  of  the  Body 
to  be  the  development  of  the  Mind,  and  that  the  forma- 
tion of  blood,  which  all  the  world  esteems  most  practical, 
is  so,  after  all,  only  as  secondary  to  a  greater  object.    (See 
Ap.  H.) 

123.  BY  SYNTHESIS,  the  Right  M,  Mental,  Mentory, 
or  '  Group,  or  Mechanism,  may  be  constructed  by  tak- 
ing the  right  skeleton  of  the  Larynx,  applying  the  right 

118.  What  is  —  comparatively  ?    119.  —  shows  what  ?    120.  What  is  said  of  — 
121.  What  does  table  show  ?  Write  table.  122.  —  shows  what  ?  Purport  of  Ap.  H 


56  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

muscles,  nerves,  skin,  and  blood-tubes,  and  following  this 
by  a  similar  construction  of  the  Right  Upper  and  Lower 
Extremities,  Right  Trunk- Walls,  Neck  and  HEAD- Walls, 
placing  in  the  last  their  Right  CONTENTS.  The  Left 
Group  or  Mechanism  may  be  constructed  in  the  same 
way.  Then  unite  the  Right  and  Left  Mechanism  on  the 
middle  line,  and  into  the  cavities  of  their  Trunk-Walls 
pack  the  close-fitting  Contents  of  Trunk-Walls,  the  B. 
Blood-making,  sangujfic,  sanguificatory,  or  "  Group.  To 
the  CONTENTS  of  the  HEAD-Walls  add  the  Mind,  and  the 
passive  potential  Man  is  complete !  Let  the  External 
World  act  through  his  body  upon  his  mind,  and  excite 
its  reaction,  and  give  him  air,  water,  and  food,  from 
which  to  produce  blood,  and  he  becomes  mentally  and 
physically  an  active  man. 

(It  is  not  intended  that  the  student  shall  conclude 
that  the  right  and  left  G'roups  are  entirely  independent 
of  each  other,  and  without  any  relations.  The  skin  of 
the  two  is  continuous, — so  are  the  vertebrae  of  the  skele- 
ton ;  and  the  nerves  from  a  part  of  each  eye  extend  to 
the  opposite  Brain,  as  must  be  the  case  for  perfection  of 
sight.  Nerves,  under  the  name  of  commissures,  from 
each  spinal  cord  and  brain  extend  into  the  other.  Yet 
the  general  idea  is  correct  and  very  valuable  toward  giv- 
ing a  correct  idea  of  the  structure  of  the  Body.) 

124.  How  ACTION  AND  REACTION  between  the  mind 
and  world,  and  the  making  of  Blood,  take  place,  it  will 
be  our  duty  in  the  next  chapter  to  begin  to  unfold,  by 
an  analysis  of  the  two  mechanisms  into  the  requisite  ap- 
paratus for  performing  all  the  functions  required  by  the 
Mind,  and  into  those  necessary  for  perfecting  and  circu- 
lating blood.  The  last  clause  exhibits  the  fact,  that  in 
reference  to  Blood,  two  sections  will  be  needed,  one  upon 
making  it,  and  the  other  upon  circulating  it  through 
both  Groups. 


128.  Construct  Man  from  Groups  —  ?  How  shall  he  become  active  T    124  What 
will  be  unfolded  in  the  next  chapter? 


CHAPTER    IV. 

SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  GROUPS  OR  MECHANISMS. 

APPARATUS. 

SECTION  I. 
Mentory  Apparatus. 

125.  To     DEVELOP     THE     MlND,     TO     MAKE     BLOOD, 

AND  TO  CIRCULATE  IT,  several  distinct  operations,  called 
functions,  must  be  performed.  It  is  one  operation  or 
function  for  the  mind  to  receive  an  influence,  and  another 
for  it  to  exert  one.  To  take  air  and  to  take  food  for 
making  blood  are  distinct  functions. 

126.  EACH  FUNCTION  REQUIRES  an  Apparatus,  which 
is  the  collective  name  of  the  parts  that  successively,  or 
combined,  perform  a  function. 

127.  THE  NUMBER  OF  APPARATUSES  into  which  each 
mechanism  can  be  divided  will  depend  upon  the  number 
of  operations  or  functions  required  for  the  development 
of  the  Mind,  the  making  of  blood  and  the  circulation 
of  It. 

128.  THE   OPERATIONS   OF  THE  MIND    may  be  in- 
cluded under  four  classes,  Sensational,  Emotional,  Intel- 
lectional,  and  Motional;  that  is,  by  which  it  experiences 
Sensations,  as  of  sight,  hearing,  warmth,  hunger,  pain, 
health,  &c. ;  Emotions,  as  of  joy,  grief,  anger,  &c. ;  In- 
tellections, as  thoughts,  &c. ;  and  the  power  of  producing 
Motion.     (See  Ap.  I.) 


Bubj.  of  Chap.  ?    How  many  Sec.  ?    Subj.  of  1st  Sec.  ?    125.  What  must  be  per- 
formed—?  126.  What  does  —  ?    127.  On  what  will  —  depend  ?    128.  How  class  —  ? 


58  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

129.  THE  MENTORY  APPARATUS  must,  like  the 
Functions,  be  of  four  kinds,  Sensatory,  producing  Sensa- 
tions ;  Emotory,  Emotions ;  Intellectoiy,  Intellections; 
Motory,  Motions  ;  or,  in  tabular  form, 

(  Sensat-ory  (-ion). 

APPARATUS    .  J  Emot-ory  (-ion). 

Intellect-ory  (-ion). 

[  Mot-ory  (-ion). 


SECTION  II. 
Sanguificatory  Apparatus. 

130.  BLOOD  is  MADE  from  Air,  Water,  and  Food: 
there  must  be  an  Apparatus  to  receive  the  air  and  pass 
it  into  the  Blood,  and  another  to  operate  upon  the  food ; 
the  water  is   of  such  a  character  that  it  can  pass  in" 
through  either  of  the  two.     The  former  is  called  the 
Respiratory,  and  the  latter  the  Digestory  Apparatus, 
and  their  Functions  are  called  Respiration  and  Digestion. 

131.  IMPURITIES  MUST  BE  ELIMINATED  or  removed 
from  the  blood ;  therefore  an  Eliminatory  Apparatus  will 
be  required,  its  Function  being  Elimination. 

132.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  BLOOD,  and  what  it 
gathers  as  it  passes  through  the  body,  must  be  worked 
over  in  various  ways,  or  modified  according  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  case :  hence  there  must  be  parts  that, 
taken  together,  may  be  called  the  Modificatory  Appara- 
tus ;  its  Function  is  Modification. 

133.  ALL  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  BLOOD-MAKING  or 
Sanguification  can  be  fulfilled  by  four  kinds  of  Appara- 
tus, in  tabular  form  as  follows : 

f  Respirat-ory  (ion), 
(ion). 


^  Modificat-ory  (ion). 


129.  Kinds  of-?  Write  table.  Subject  of  2d  Sec.  ?  180.  Of  what  — ?  131.  How 
—  ?    182.  What  must  be  done  to  —  ?    183.  How  fulfil  T    Write  table. 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    GROUPS.  59 

SECTION  III. 
Circulatory   Apparatus. 

134.  BLOOD  MUST  BE  CIRCULATED  in  order  to  be  of 
avail,  and  it  has  been  seen  that  tubes  are  provided  for 
this  purpose.     There  must  be,  therefore,  an  Apparatus 
for  the  circulation  of  Blood,  called  the  B.  (Blood)  Circu- 
latory Apparatus  ;  its  Function,  B.  (Blood)  Circulation. 

135.  THE  CIRCULATION  OF  BLOOD  MUST  BE  CONTROLL- 
ED, increased,  or  diminished,  as  the  necessities  of  parts 
require;   and  as  all  other  controlling  influences  in  the 
body  are  nervous,  so  is  this.    For  the  sake  of  euphony  the 
parts  controlling  the  circulation  of  blood  may  be  called 
the  N.  (Nervous)  Circulatory  Apparatus. 

i  o«       „  (  B.  Circulat-ory  (ion). 

136.  CIRCULATORY  APPARATUS     .     =  j  N  Circulat-ory  (ion)- 

137.  THE  CIRCULATORY  APPARATUS  is,  in  fact,  to  an 
extent,  a  part  of  the  Mentory  and  of  the  Sanguificatory 
Apparatus,  as  Blood-tubes  are  found  in  all  of  them.     In 
the  Mentory  the  tubes  are  right  and  left,  as  the  apparatus 
is  ;  but  in  the  sanguificatory,  as  its  parts  are.     (Fig.  48.) 

138.  BOTH  KINDS  OF  CIRCULATORY  APPARATUS  MAY 
BE  INCLUDED  with  each,  which  will   give  six  to  each 
Group,  though  there  are  only  ten  in  all,  as  follows.    (See 

J.)  fSensat-ory         (ion). 


G'  =  [Mot-ory  (ion). 


G"=  TRespirat-ory      (ion) 


(_  Modificat-ory     (ion). 

139.  THE  USES  OF  EACH  KIND  OF  APPARATUS  will 
determine  their  varieties,  and  of  how  many  and  what 
kind  of  parts  or  organs  each  apparatus  consists.  That 
Analysis  will  be  the  object  of  the  next  chapter. 


Topic  of  3d  Sec.  ?    184.  Why  —  ?    135.  Why  —  ?    136.  What  does  —  ?    1ST. 
What,  in  fact,  is  —  ?    188.   How  include  —  ?    Write  and  explain  table. 


CHAPTER    V. 

SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS. 
ORGANS. 

SECTION  I. 
Sensatory  Organs. 

140.  "LiFE  DEPRIVED  OF  SENSATIONS  AS  USEFUL  AS 
THOSE  OF  HEARING,  is  a  kind  of  premature  death ;  the 
deaf  man  is  necessarily  a  dumb  man,  and  who  can  com- 
pute his  loss  ?  his  never-sleeping  guard  that  warned  him 
of  a  thousand  dangers  is  dead ;  and  now  the  tread  of 
the  midnight  thief,  the  scream  of  the  drowning  child, 
and  the  mutterings  of  the  coming  storm,  fall  on  his  ear  as 
vainly  as  the  tear  of  sorrow  on  the  brow  of  death ;  who 
can  compute  his  loss  ?  the  sweet  echoes  of  the  valley, 
the  voice  of  friendship,  the  hallelujahs  of  the  Sabbath, 
and  the  loud  artillery  of  heaven,  are  alike  condensed 
into  barren  nothingness,  and  in  the  very  excess  of  still- 
ness he  loses  all  the  pleasures  of  solitude." — Le  Cat. 

141.  LE  CAT  SHOWS  by  the  above  eloquent  descrip- 
tion of  the  Ear,  not  only  its  importance,  but  by  analogy 
that  the  mind  is  indebted  to  Sensatory  Apparatus  for  a 
knowledge  of  danger,  of  philosophy,  and  of  all  the  en- 
joyments the  External  World  is  adapted  to  produce. 

142.  THE  PHYSICAL  MEANS  BY  WHICH  SUCH  GRAND 
RESULTS  ARE  PRODUCED  are  wonderfully  simple  and  few. 
Waves   of  air,   colors   and  direction  of  light,  odorous 
properties,  savory  properties,  temperatures  and  presence 
of  objects,  and  density  of  objects,  requiring  only  a  cor- 


What  subject  of  Chapter  ?    140.  What  is— ?    141.  What  does  —  ?    142.  What 
are  — f 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS.  61 

responding  number  of  kinds  of  apparatus  to  utilize  them 
fully. 

143.  DIFFERENT  OBJECTS  PRODUCE  different  kinds  of 
waves  of  air  ;  different  colors  of  light,  from  different  po- 
sitions ;   have  different  odorous  or  savory  properties,  or 
temperatures,  or  density  ;  for  if  they  are  alike  in  all  other 
respects,  they  will  be  in  different  positions,  and  light  will 
come  from  them  in  different  directions  ;  and  if  the  mind 
be  furnished  with  the  few  kinds  of  apparatus  necessary 
to  perceive  those  differences  and  similarities,  it  can  learn 
all  it  can  know  about  external  objects. 

144.  THE  MIND  ALSO  REQUIRES  a  knowledge  of  the 
state   of  the  various  parts  of  the  Body  ;  and  that  must 
be  gained  by  means   of  Sensations,  produced  through 
appropriate  apparatus. 

145.  Two  CLASSES  OF  SENSATORY  APPARATUS  ARE 
NECESSARY  ;  the  one  called  objective,  external,  special,  or 
the  senses,  because  it  deals  with  objects  external  to  the 
Body,  is  specially  adapted  to  its  purpose,  and  is  the  evi- 
dent cause  of  sense  ;  the  other,  called  general,  internal, 
or  subjective,  because  it  exists  generally  throughout  the 
internal  parts  of  the  Body,  and  because  through  it  ob- 
servations are  made  upon  the  condition  of  the  various 
internal  parts  of  the  subject  himself. 


146.  The  number  and  kinds  of  organs  or  parts  neces- 
sary to  compose  each  variety  of  Sensatory  Apparatus 
can  be  best  appreciated  after  noticing  the  means  neces- 
sary to  cause  a  Sensation. 

147.  SENSATION  is  the  name  of  a  peculiar  effect  pro- 
duced by  a  part  of  the  Brain  on  the  Mind,  of  which  it 
is  conscious. 

148.  How  THE  BRAIN  ACTS  upon  the  Mind  in  the 
production  of  a  Sensation  is  not  known  or  conjectured. 

143.  What  do  —  ?   144.  What  does  —  ?   145.  What  —  ?    Write  table.    147.  What 
is—?    148.  How  does—  ? 


62  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

149.  To  PRODUCE  A  SENSATION,  there  is  necessary  a 
portion  of  Brain,  called  a  Sensatory  Ganglion,  active  to 
such  a  degree  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  excite  in  the  mind 
a  sensation. 

150.  THE  SENSATORY  GANGLIA  ARE  CONNECTED  only 
with  the  Mind,  with  other  parts  of  the  Brain,  and  with 
the  Sensatory  Nerves,  which  are  in  one  sense  the  white 
part  of  the  Ganglia,  or  continuations  of  it,  reaching  or 
extending  out,  in  the  form  of  minute  pulpy  cords,  into  all 
parts  of  the  body,  and  almost  to  its  very  surface.    (PI.  3.) 

151.  THE  ACTIVITY  OF  A  SENSATORY  GANGLION,  and 
consequently  a  sensation,  must  be  caused  either, 

1st.  By  the  action  of  the  Mind  upon  the  Ganglion, 
causing  reaction  upon  itself;  which  is  doubtful. 

2d.  By  the  action  of  other  parts  of  the  Brain. 

3d.  By  the  action  of  the  Ganglion  itself.  This  may 
easily  be  the  case,  for  blood  is  constantly  circulating 
through  it,  and  changes  are  thus  constantly  taking  place 
in  the  ganglion,  and  it  must  be  constantly  active,  if  not 
to  the  degree  to  cause  sensation. 

4th.  By  the  action  of  the  sematory  Nerves. 

152.  THE  immediate  CAUSE  OF  SENSATION  is  always 
a  Ganglion,  but  that  which  excites  the  ganglion  to  sensa- 
tory  activity,  no  matter  through  what  steps,  is  commonly 
called  the  cause  of  the  sensation  and  of  the  activity  of 
the  Ganglion ;  therefore  it  is  caused, 

5th.  By  the  action  of  the  general  organs,  in  which 
the  outer  extremities  of  the  general  sensatory  nerves 
are  found ;  the  organ  exciting  the  nerve,  and  the  nerve 
exciting  the  ganglion ;  thus  by  two  steps  its  activity  is 
excited. 

6th.  By  the  action  of  the  special  organs  in  which 
the  special  sensatory  nerves  commence  outwardly.  In 
this  case  through  two  steps  the  ganglion  is  excited. 

7th.  By  the  action  of  external  objects,  through  the 


149.  What  is  necessary  —  ?    150.  How  —  ?   151.  How  must  —  1st  ?  2d  ?  3d  ?  4th  ? 
152.  What  is  —  ?    How  is  sensation  caused  ?    5th  ?  6th  ?  7th  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OP    APPARATUS.  63 

special  sensatory  organs,  upon  their  nerves,  that  in  turn 
excite  the  ganglia,  formed  in  part  of  their  inner  extrem- 
ities. In  this  case  by  three  steps  the  activity  is  excited. 

8th.  JBy  the  action  of  objects  exerting  an  influence 
upon  the  organs.  In  this  case  there  are  four  steps  be- 
tween cause  and  activity ;  for  example,  an  object  throws 
light  upon  the  eye,  through  it  aftecting  its  special  nerve, 
that  acts  upon  its  ganglion. 

153.   THE  ORDER  OF  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SENSATION 

may  be  represented  as  follows  : 

Cause. 

Mind,  Ganglia,  Mind, 

Sensation. 
Cause. 
Ganglia,  Mind, 

Sensation. 
Cause. 
Nerve,  Ganglia,  Mind, 

Sensation. 
Cause. 

General  Organ,  Nerve,  Ganglia,  Mind, 
Sensation. 

Cause. 

Special  Organ,  Nerve,  Ganglia,  Mind, 
Sensation. 

Cause. 

Object,  Special  Organ,  Nerve,  Ganglia,  Mind, 
Sensation. 

Cause. 

Object,  Influence,  Special  Organ,  Nerve,  Ganglia,  Mind, 

Sensation. 


Parts  of  Body. 

154.  IN  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  A  SENSATION   IT   IS  EVI- 
DENT that  one,  two,  or  three  parts  of  the  body  are  always 
concerned ;  they  are  called  Sensatory  Organs,  or  Organs 
of  Sensation. 

155.  A  COMPLETE  SENSATORY  APPARATUS  is  COM- 
POSED of  three  kinds  of  Sensatory  Organs  ;  thus, 

Sensatory  Apparatus. 

General  or  Special  Organ,  Nerve,  Ganglion. 


8th?    153.  Write  table  and  explain.    154.  What— ?    155.  Of  what— ?    Howls 
sensation  caused? 


64  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

156.  THE  GENERAL  ORGANS  OF  THE  BODY,  in  which 
the  outer  ends  of  the  sensatory  nerves  exist,  do  not  re- 
quire any  peculiar  adaptation  to  their  sensatory  office  or 
function ;    all  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  the  nerves 
commence  in,  and  thus  connect  every  part  with,  the 
Ganglia;  then,  whatever  the  condition  of  the  organ,  a 
corresponding  effect  can  be  produced  in  the  nerve,  and 
a  corresponding  activity  in  its  Ganglion,  and  a  corre- 
sponding sensation. 

157.  Illus. — If  any  part  be  in  health,  it  causes   a 
delightful  sensation ;  if  diseased,  an  unpleasant  sensa- 
tion ;  if  it  require  food,  a  sensation  of  hunger ;  if  drink, 
a  sensation  of  thirst ;  if  too  warm  or  too  cold,  appropriate 
sensations ;  and  thus  of  all  other  states,  through  scores 
of  varieties  and  hundreds  of  shades. 

158.  A   VERY    NATURAL    QUESTION    WOULD    BE,  If  all 

the  sensations  are  produced  in  the  head  by  the  activity 
of  the  Ganglia,  how  can  it  be  determined  that  they  are 
caused  in  one  part  rather  than  another  ? 

159.  TO    DETERMINE   IN   WHAT   PART  ANY  SENSATION 

HAS  BEEN  CAUSED,  it  is  only  necessary  to  have  the  mind 
believe,  when  it  has  a  sensation,  that  it  was  caused  at 
the  outer  end  of  the  nerve  through  which  the  activity 
of  the  Ganglion  has  been  caused.  This  is  the  case,  and 
the  act  is  called  perceiving  the  sensation. 

160.  Illus. — WHEN  A  PERSON  STRIKES  THE  ELBOW, 
or  funny  bone,  he  says  he  ftfels  a  sensation  in  his  lit- 
tle finger,  but  he  does  not ;  he  strikes  a  nerve  (a,  Fig. 
43)   between  the  skin  and   bone  of  the  elbow,  which 
nerve  commences  by  numerous  branches  in  his  little  fin- 
ger, and  extends  to  the  Ganglia.     When  struck,  this 
nerve  excites  the  Ganglia  and  causes  a  sensation  that 
the  mind  refers  to  the  part  in  which  the  outer  end  of  the 
nerve  is ;  that  Is,  the  Mind  perceives  the  sensation  in  the 
finger,  or  as  if  it  was  in  the  finger. 

161.  Illus. — WHEN  A   PERSON   BY    LONG    SITTING 
COMPRESSES  THE  NERVE  (&,  Fig.  43)  between  the  seat 


156.  "What  do—  requirn?    157.  How  illustrated?    158.  What  would  be—? 
159.  What  necefesary  ?    160.  What  effect  —  ?    161.  What  effect  — ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS.  65 

and  the  haunch-bone,  he  causes  a  sensation  that  the 
Mind  perceives  in  the  foot  and  lower  leg,  where  the 
branches  of  the  nerve  commence,  and  he  says  his  foot  is 
asleep,  when  in  fact  there  is  nothing  the  matter  with  the 
foot ;  nor  will  rubbing  the  foot  or  lower  leg,  or  anything 
else,  except  removing  the  pressure,  do  any  good. 

162.  IlluS. IF  AN  ARM  BE  CUT  OFF  («,  Fig.    1,    PL    3) 

below  the  elbow,  or  the  leg  below  the  hip  (5,  Fig.  1, 
PL  3),  and  the  elbow  struck  or  the  nerve  at  x  compress- 
ed, precisely  the  same  result  will  be  produced ;  the  sen- 
sation will  appear  to  be  where  the  nerves  naturally  com-' 
mence,  and  the  individual,  through  his  sensations,  will 
appear  to  have  a  hand  and  foot.  If  he  is  asked  with 
his  eyes  shut  to  point  out  where  his  sensations  seem  to 
be,  he  will  accurately  indicate  where  his  foot  or  hand 
would  be,  both  in  distance  and  direction ;  and  as  the 
stump  is  turned,  so  will  it  seem  to  him  that  the  foot  or 
hand  changes  position. 

163.  DISEASES  OF  THE  GANGLIA  OR  NERVES   SOME- 
TIMES PRODUCE  the  most  excruciating  pains,  which  will 
be  referred  to  or  perceived  in  parts  perfectly  sound. 

164.  Illus. — A  LADY  REQUIRED  her  physician  to  ex- 
tract eight  teeth,  that,  as  she  insisted,  "  ached."     But 
she  was  not  relieved,  for  the  teeth  were  sound,  and  the 
disease  existed  in  the  nerves  or  Ganglia. 

165.  IllllS. IN    THE      DISEASE     NEURALGIA,     NerVC- 

pain,  or  tic-douloureux,  applications  to  the  parts  appar- 
ently affected  do  not  usually  remove  the  pain,  because 
these  parts  are  not  usually  the  seat  of  the  disease. 

166.  PAIN  PRODUCED  BY  PARTS  DISEASED  is  not  always 
referred  to  them,  but  sometimes  to  others ;  why,  is  not 
known. 

167.  Illus. — PAIN  PRODUCED  BY  SOME  DISEASES  OF 
THE  LIVER  is  frequently  referred  to  a  location  under  the 
shoulder. 

168.  Illus. — PAIN  PRODUCED  BY  INCIPIENT  HIP-DIS- 
EASE is  frequently  perceived  in  the  knee. 

169.  Inf. — IT  is  BY  NO  MEANS  CERTAIN  that  because 
a  part  is  painful  it  is  diseased,  or  that  pain  is  even  pres- 
ent, for  it  may  seem  to  be  in  a  part  that  is  removed. 

162.  What  —  ?    163.  What  do  —  ?    164.  What  did  —  ?    166.  How  is  —  referred  ? 
167.  1st  Illus.  ?    163.  2d  Illus.  ?    169.  What-? 


66  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

L70.  Inf. — IT  WILL  REQUIRE  MUCH  EXPERIENCE  of- 
tentimes to  decide  upon  the  kind  and  locality  of  disease 
from  the  character  of  pains  that  a  patient  will  describe, 
and  the  places  where  he  will  perceive  and  locate  them. 

171.  THE  ORGANS  AT  THE  OUTER  EXTREMITIES  OF 
THE  SPECIAL  SENSATORY  NERVES  have  special  sensatory 
uses,  need  special  names,  and  are  called  Organs  of  Sense 
as  a  collective  name.      (Observe  that   this   expression 
differs  from  Organs  of  Sensation  and  from  Sensatory  Or- 
gans.    Organ  of  sense  is  the  technical  name  of  one  kind 
of  the  Organs  of  Sensation.) 

172.  THE  ORGANS  OF  SENSE,  with  one  exception,  are 
found  at  the  surface  of  the  Body,  ready  to  catch  the  in- 
fluences that  objects  around  can  exert  directly  or  indi- 
rectly. 

173.  THE  NUMBER  OF  KINDS  OF  ORGANS  OF  SENSE, 
and  their   essential  characteristics,  and  of  course   the 
number  of  special  Sensatory  Apparatuses,  can  be  deter- 
mined by  again  noticing  the  characteristics  of  external 
objects,  and  comparing  them  with  what  is  necessary  to 
produce  sensations. 

ORGANS  OF  SENSE  OF  HEARING. 

1 74.  WAVE'S  OF  AIR  HAVE  three  characteristics,  force, 
quality,  and  pitch,  and  different  objects  produce  waves 
that  differ  in  some  or  all  of  these  respects,  some  in  an 
exceedingly  minute,  and  some  in  a  great  degree. 

175.  FOR  THE  MIND  TO  LEARN  THE  CHARACTER  OF 
OBJECTS  and  enjoy  them,  it  is  necessary  it  should  have 
the  means  of  distinguishing  all  the  different  degrees  of 
force,  quality,  and  pitch  that  objects  produce. 

176.  EACH  WAVE  POSSESSES  in  some  degree  all  its 
three  characteristics ;  a  single  organ  therefore  must  be 
so  constituted  as  to  receive  a  wave,  and  cause  it  to  exert 
its  three  influences,  through  three  kinds  of  parts,  upon 
three  kinds  of  nerves  connected  with  three  kinds   of 


170.  What  —  ?  171.  What  have  —  ?  172.  What  are  —  ?  173.  How  determine  — ? 
174.  What  —  ?    175.  What  necessary  —  ?    176.  What  does  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS. 


ganglia,  and  the  mind  will  perceive  all  the  sensations  of 
sound,  which  are  called  feeble,  loud;  sweet,  rough;  low, 
high;  and  by  a  thousand  other  names  expressive  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  force,  quality,  and  pitch. 

177.  THE  EAR,  or  Organ  of  Sense  of  Hearing,  is 
constituted  of  three  parts,  called  the  external,  middle, 
and  internal  ear. 

FIG.  73. 

Fig.  73  is  a,  beautiful  view  of 
the  Ear;  1,  external,  2,  mid- 
dle, 3,  inner  ear  ;  13,  a  sec- 
tion of  the  air-tube,  which  sec- 
tion extends  through  the  front 
of  2,  and  the  middle  of  19,  a 
tube  called  Eustachian,  lead- 
ing to  back  part  of  nostril.  If 
a  person  close  the  nose  and 
mouth,  and  blow  air  from  the 
lungs,  it  will  press  up  that 
tube  into  2,  and  produce  a 
ringing.  14,  bottom  of  air- 
tube,  a  tremulous  membrane 
that,  acting  on  nerves,  deter- 
mines/era? ;  22,  semi-circular 
canals,  that  determines  quali- 
ty ;  24,  cochlea,  that  deter- 
mines pitch  ;  18,  bones  of  ear. 


178.  THE  EXTERNAL  EAR  is  adapted  to  receive  a 
wave  of  air  and  transmit  it  to 

179.  THE  INTERNAL  EAR,  COMPOSED  of  three  parts, 
each  acted  upon  by  its  corresponding  influence,  and  con- 
nected by  nerves  with  Ganglia.     If  all  these  parts  are 
perfect,  correct  sensations  of  the  three  kinds  will  be 
produced ;  but  if  one  should  be  imperfect  by  constitution 
or  by  disease,  the  sensations  of  that  class  will  be  imperfect 
or  wanting.     Thus  a  person  may  have  correct  ideas  of 
the  force  of  a  sound  and  not  of  its  pitch,  &c.,  as  is  not 
unfrequently  the  case.     The  ears  may  be  unlike,  and 


177.  —  how  divided  ?    Describe  Fig.  73.    178.  —  how  adapted  ?    179.  How  —  ? 
May  a  person  have  correct  sensations  of  one  class  and  not  of  the  other? 


68  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

thus  the  hearing  through  both  imperfect,  and  perfect 
through  one  with  the  other  closed. 

180.  THE  EAR  is  PLACED  in  the  side  of  the  head, 
where  it  will  most  readily  catch  each  passing  air-wave, 
and  where  it  can  be  easily  turned  in  any  direction  to 
assist  in  judging  whence  the  wave  came. 

Thus  in  the  simplest  manner,  and  with  the  most  ex- 
quisite delicacy,  is  the  ear  made  useful  to  a  wonderful 
degree,  and  will  be  found  still  more  admirable  when  the 
details  of  this  organ  are  wrought  out. 

181.  THE  APPARATUS  OF  HEARING,  through  which 
waves  of  air  act,  is  double,  being  right  and  left,  and  is 
composed,  acted  upon,  and  acts,  as  follows : 

Apparatus  of  Hearing, 
Three  kinds  of  organs. 

1  -n  »  a 

L  i A-  — ^  D 

Object,  Waves  of  Air,  Ear,  Nerves,  Ganglia,  Mind. 
Cause.  34  5       Sensations. 

ORGANS  OF  APPARATUS  OF  SIGHT. 

182.  RAYS  OF  LIGHT   are  of  many  different  colors 
and  shades,  and  pass  off  in  a  radiating  manner  from  the 
minutest  points  of  all  objects  except  those  called  black. 

183.  SIMILAR  OBJECTS  THROW  OFF  similar,  and  dis- 
similar objects  dissimilar,  colored  rays,  and   therefore 
they  may  be  the  means  of  distinguishing  the  character 
of  objects. 

184.  THE  MINUTEST  POINTS  OF  OBJECTS  (which  are 
in  fact  the  real  objects  of  vision)  are  in  different  posi- 
tions, and  therefore  throw  off  rays  in  different  directions, 
each  in  a  direct  line  from  its  starting-point.     Therefore, 
to  know  the  direction  of  a  ray  of  light  is  to  know  the 
direction  of  the  object  whence  it  came. 

185.  TO    LEARN    THE    CHARACTER   AND   DIRECTION  OF 

OBJECTS,  the  mind  requires  means  for  distinguishing  the 
color  and  direction  of  rays  of  light. 


ISO.  Where  —  ?      181.  How  is  —  composed?      Table?      182.  What  are  —  ? 
188.  What  do  —  ?    184.  Where  nre  —  ?    186.  What  required  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS.  69 

186.    EACH  KAY  OF  LIGHT  has  color 'and  direction. 


therefore  a  single  organ  is  required  that  shall  produce 
two  sensations. 

187.  A  SINGLE  RAY  will  produce  a  very  feeble  effect, 
therefore  the  organ  to  receive  it  must  be  so  constructed 
that  several  rays  from  the  same  point  shall  act  together 
and  thus  increase  the  effect. 

188.  SEVERAL    RAYS    RADIATING   FROM   THE   SAME 
POINT  have  different  directions,  but  if  the  organ  be  prop- 
erly constructed,  the  effect  of  several  acting  upon  the 
same  point  in  the  organ  will  be  the  same  as  if  one  only 
acted  with  the  same  power  as  all  of  them.     (See  PI.  8.) 

189.  THE  SAME  MEANS  NECESSARY  TO  CAUSE  THE 
RAYS  FROM  ONE  POINT  OF  AN  OBJECT  TO  ACT  UPON  ONE 

POINT  IN  THE    ORGAN,  WILL   BE    SUFFICIENT   to   Cause    the 

rays  from  thousands,  yes,  millions  of  adjacent  points,  to 
act  upon  adjacent  points  in  the  organ,  and  it  will  only 
be  necessary  to  furnish  it  with  the  corresponding  num- 

FIG.  74. 

Fig.  74  repre- 
sents a  perpen- 
dicular section  of 
the  eye,  from 
front  to  rear.  1, 
white  of  eye,  ex- 
tending round, ^ 
and  forming  a 
strong  spherical 
box,  the  opening 
in  front  filled  by 
2,  a  window  ;  7, 
the  pupil,  an 
opening  in  6,  the 

iris,  muscles  that  contract  or  enlarge  7 ;  9,  a  space  filled  by  a  transparent 
fluid ;  11,  lens ;  13,  transparent  substance,  filling  all  back  of  11  to  8,  a 
multitude  of  nerves  spread  out  to  receive  light  coming  back  through  7 ; 
15,  the  bundle  of  nerves  8,  continuing  back  to  brain.  Make  a  hole  in  pa- 
per, place  two  candles  before  it,  and  the  light  will  shine  through  in  two 
directions ;  place  a  lens  behind  the  hole,  and  at  a  proper  distance  the  light 
will  be  brought  to  two  points. 


1S6.  What  has  —  ?    1ST.  Why  are  more  than  —  needed  ?    188.  What  directions 
hava  —  ?    189.  For  what  will  —  ?    Describe  FJg.  74. 


70  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

her  of  nerves  to  enable  the  mind  to  receive  millions  of 
sensations  of  three  kinds,  color,  and  direction,  at  the 
same  instant,  and  to  take  in  a  wide  field  of  vision. 

190.  THE  EYE  is  an  organ  adapted  to  cause  the  rays 
of  light,  from  millions  of  points  without,  to  act  upon  mil- 
lions of  points  within  it,  where  commence  nerves  connect- 
ing with  ganglia.     Through  each  nerve  two  sensations, 
one  of  color,  the  other  of  direction,  are  produced,  and  the 
mind  is  thus  furnished  with  the  data  for  further  knowledge. 

191.  THE  EYE  is  LOCATED  in  the  front  and  upper 
part  of  the  head,  the  motions  of  which,  together  with 
those  of  the  eye,  give  all  the  extent  desirable  for  vision. 

192.  THE  APPARATUS  OF  SIGHT  must  be  double,  right 
and  left,  and  is  composed,  acted  upon,  and  acts,  as  follows: 

Apparatus  of  Sight, 
Three  kinds  of  organs. 

Object,  Rays  of  Light,  Eye,  Nerves,  Ganglia,  Mind, 
Cause.  34  5      Sensations. 

ORGANS  OF  APPARATUS  OF  SMELL. 

193.  ODOROUS  PARTICLES  are  exquisitely  minute,  dis- 
solved in  the  air,  and  differ  as  the  objects  do  from  which 
they  are  derived,  and  require  only  to  be  brought  in  con- 
tact with  appropriate  nerves,  when  each  will  excite  its 
peculiar  sensation. 

194.  To   DISTINGUISH   ODORS,  therefore,   and    learn 
through  them  the  character  of  objects,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary that  the  air  containing  them  shall  sweep  over  a  del- 
icate surface  near  to  which  nerves  of  smell  in  great 
numbers  commence,  against  which  the  laden  air  may  at 
times  be  pressed  with  some  force. 

195.  THE  NOSE  is  an  organ  admirably  adapted  to  be 
the  organ  of  smell.   The  air  loaded  with  odorous  particles 
can  be  drawn  through  it,  and  over  the  delicate  membrane 
with  which  it  is  lined,  near  the  surface  of  which  commence 
numerous  nerves  that  extend  to  ganglia  related  to  the  mind. 


190.  What  is-?  191.  Where  — ?  192.  Write  table.  193.  What  are  — ?  194.  What 
Is  necessary  -  ?  195.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS.        71 

196.   THE  APPARATUS  OF  SMELL  is  double,  right  and 
left,  and  composed,  acted  upon,  and  acts,  as  follows : 

Apparatus  of  Smell, 
Three  kinds  of  organs. 

Objects,  Air,  Nose,  Nerves,  Ganglia,  Mind. 
Cause.  34  5       Sensations. 


FIG.  75. 


Vffl™ 


Fig.  75  represents  a  section  of  the  nose  near  its  partition,  toward  which 
the  observer  is  supposed  to  look.  The  section  is  carried  back  into  the 
cranium,  and  down  into  the  mouth  and  throat.  I  is  the  Ganglion  of 
smell,  just  above  the  roof  of  the  nose,  on  which  it  rests,  and  through  nu- 
merous holes  in  which  the  nerves  of  smell,  1,  extend  ;  2  and  3  are  divisions 
of  nerves,  one  twig  of  3  extending  through  an  opening  in  the  bony  roof 
of  the  mouth  to  the  skin  lining  it ;  u  is  the  uvula,  or  tip  of  the  hanging 
palate.  The  white  line  from  it,  up  to  3,  shows  the  termination  of  the  par- 
tition, behind  which  the  eye  can  look  into  the  other  nostril,  and  see  x,  the 
opening  into  the  Eustachian  tube,  leading  to  the  middle  ear.  (See  Fig.  73.) 

ORGANS  OF  APPARATUS  OF  TASTE. 

19Y.  SAVORY  PROPERTIES  EXIST  in  the  minute  parti- 
cles of  certain  objects  that  must  be  dissolved  for  the  ex- 
hibition of  their  savors,  and  applied  to  nerves,  when  each 
one  will  produce  its  appropriate  sensation. 

198.   To  DISTINGUISH   SAVORS,  therefore,  and  learn 


196.  Table.    Describe  Fig.  75.    What  connections  has  the  equity  of  the 
Recording  to  the  cut?    197.  How  do  — ?    198.  What  is  necessary  —  ? 


TTW  TTT  W  Y*  ««*—  _ 


V2  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

through  them  all  that  they  can  teach  of  the  characters  of 
objects,  it  is  only  necessary  that  a  fluid  in  which  savory 
objects  are  dissolved  should  be  spread  over  a  delicate  sur- 
face, near  to  which  commence  numerous  nerves  of  taste. 

199.  THE  MOUTJI  is  an  organ  admirably  adapted  to 
Taste.     It  is  provided  with  an  abundance  of  fluid  for 
dissolving  the  savory  objects,  and  also  furnished  with 
teeth  to  grind  and  prepare  them  for  solution,  and  with  a 
delicate  membrane,  near  to  the  surface  of  part  of  which 
commence  millions  of  nerves  connecting  with  appropri- 
ate ganglia. 

200.  THE  APPARATUS  OF  TASTE  must  be  double,  right 
and  left,  and  is  composed,  acted  upon,  and  acts,  as  follows : 

Apparatus  of  Taste, 
Three  kinds  of  organs. 

Objects,  Particles  dissolved,  Mouth,  Nerves,  Ganglia,  Mind. 
Cause.  345        Sensations. 

ORGANS  OF  APPARATUS  OF  TOUCH. 

201.  TO    DISTINGUISH    TEMPERATURES  AND  THE  PRES- 
ENCE OF  OBJECTS,  and  thus  learn  all  that  it  is  possible  to 
learn  from  them,  requires  merely  the  presence  of  nerves 
of  Touch  near  to  the  surface  acted  upon. 

202.  THE  SKIN  is  the  necessary  organ  of  this  sense, 
and  is  constructed  with  nerves  of  Touch,  commencing  just 
below  its  surface,  arid  extending  thence  to  their  ganglia. 

203.  THE  LINING  OF  THE  MOUTH  AND  NOSE,  and  other 
parts,  are  to  be  included  in  the  skin  of  those  parts,  and  as 
being  the  organs  of  the  sense  of  Touch.     (2,  3,  Fig.  75.) 

204.  THE  APPARATUS  OF  TOUCH  is  double,  right  and 
left,  and  is  composed,  acted  upon,  and  acts,  as  follows ; 

Apparatus  of  Touch, 
Three  kinds  of  Organs. 


Cause. 


v     5 

,  Nerves,  Ganglia,  Mind. 
3  4       Sensations. 


199.  What  is  —  ?    200.  Table.    201.  What  is  necflssary  —  ?     202.  What  is  —  ? 
208.  Why  include  —  ?    204.  Table. 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OP   APPARATUS.  73 

ORGANS    OP   APPARATUS    OF   MUSCULAR   SENSE. 

205.  DENSITY,  RESISTANCE,  GRAVITY,   and  the  like 
properties  of  objects,  always  represent  power,  and  are 
distinguishable  by  the  different  degrees  of  power  requi- 
site to  oppose  or  overcome  them. 

206.  To  DISTINGUISH  THE  DENSITY,  etc.,  of  different 
objects,  it  will  be  necessary  to  construct  organs  capable 
of  exerting  power  in  various  degrees,  which  shall  pro- 
duce corresponding  effects  on  nerves  commencing  in  the 
organs  and  extending  to  ganglia  adapted  to  produce  the 
appropriate  and  informing  sensations. 

207.  A  MUSCLE  (a  piece  of  lean  meat),  by  contract- 
ing, is  capable  of  exerting  power ;  and  if  the  muscle 
should  be  properly  attached  by  its  extremities  to  two 
parts  of  a  framework,  connected  by  a  joint,  its  power 
could  be  applied  to  overcoming  density,  &c.;  then  if 
nerves  should  commence  in  every  part   of  it   and  be 
differently  affected  by  every  degree  of  contraction,  and 
extend  to  appropriate  ganglia,  a  complete  sensatory  ap- 
paratus would  be  formed,  as  follows : 

Apparatus  of  Muscular  Sense, 

Three  kinds  of  Organs. 
1  , * v       5 

Objects,  Muscles,  Nerves,  Ganglia,  Mind. 
Cause.      234         Sensations. 

208.  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE,  the  simplest  and  least 
easily  deranged,  is  yet  the  most  useful  of  the  senses, 
manifesting  itself  the  earliest,  being  blunted  the  last,  and 
serving  under  the  most  varied  circumstances  of  life. 

209.  THE  USE  OF  THE  MUSCLES  in   distinguishing 
objects  is  only  one,  or  one  form,  of  the  many  uses  to 
which  they  are  adapted,  and  which  the  muscular  sense 
assists  in  performing ;  its  office  in  regard  to  objects  be- 
ing superadded  or  an  accident  to  its  prime  motory  office. 

210.  MUSCLES  MUST  CONTRACT  to  perform  every  mo- 

205.  What  do  —  represent  ?    206.  How  —  ?    207.  How  can  -  perform  its  office  ? 
208.  Comparative  use  of  —  ?    209  Is  there  more  than  one  —  ?    210.  Why  —  ? 
4 


74  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

tion  required  in  or  of  the  Body,  and  each  minute  con- 
traction of  each  and  all  the  muscles  must  be  every 
instant  present  to  the  mind :  this  result  is  a  wonderful 
use  of  the  muscular  sense. 

211.  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY  ARE  BALANCED,  Or  their 

motions  adjusted  to  the  requirements  of  any  desired 
motion,  by  means  in  part  of  the  muscular  sense. 

212.  THE  MIND   is   WARNED   of  danger  when   any 
part  of  the  body  begins  to  fall,  and  to  yield  to  a  shock 
it  cannot  overcome,  by  means  of  the  muscular  sense. 

213.  THE  MIND  is  TAUGHT  the  form  of  objects   by 
the  muscles  grasping  them,  or  moving  round  them,  and 
also  distances  moved  through  by  the  whole  body,  or  a 
part  of  it,  by  means  of  data  furnished  by  the  muscular 
sense,  especially  in  combination  with  the  data  furnished 
by  touch. 

214.  THE  POWER  OF  SPEECH  is  DUE  to  the  rapid  ac- 
tion of  very  small  muscles,  the  surprising  and  wonderful 
control  of  which  is  in  part  dependent  upon  the  faithful 
action  of  the  muscular  sense,  which  reports  what  the 
sound  will  be  before  it  is  produced,  by  reporting  the 
condition  of  the  muscles  which  will  control  the  voice. 

215.  A   KNOWLEDGE    IS  ALSO  REQUIRED  BY  THE  MIXD 

of  the  condition  of  disease  or  health  in  the  muscles, 
their  weariness,  fatigue,  and  exhaustion,  on  one  hand, 
and  the  advantages  of  their  repose  and  proper  exercise 
on  the  other,  and  for  all  this  the  muscular  sense  is  suffi- 
cient. 

216.  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE,  THEREFORE,  ABOUNDS  in 
enjoyment  as  well  as  utility  more  than  any  other  sense. 

217.  THAT  A  MUSCLE  MAY  CONTRACT,  and  its  power 
be  applied  to  the  examination  of  objects,  or  any  other 
purpose,  a  nervous  influence  must  be  exerted  upon  it ; 
and  as  the  degree  of  that  influence  must  be  greater  or 
less  according  to  the  contraction  demanded,  and  must 


211.  How  are  — ?     212.  How  one  way  by  which  — ?     213.  How  —  forms,  etc.  ? 
214.  To  what  Is—  ?    215.  What  —  ?    216.  In  what  —  ?    217.  What  is  necessary  — ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS.  75 

also  be  induced  by  the  mind,  it  may  assist  in  determin- 
ing the  particular  characteristics  of  examined  objects, 
and  thus  be  a  part  of  the  muscular  sense,  or  rather  an 
addition  to  it. 

218.  Inf.  —  Two  CLASSES  OF  NERVES  MUST  BE  FOUND 
IN  THE  MUSCLES,  one  through  which  influences  act  on  the 
muscle  causing  it  to  contract,  and  another  through  which 
the  muscle,  by  contracting,  produces  its  effect  on  the 
Ganglia. 


NERVES  RELATED  TO  MUSCLES  \    -™- 

\  Sensatory. 

Fig.  76  represents  a  section  of  the  tiflTliniiilto 
spinal  cord,  with  1,  2,  the  roots,  as 
they  are  called,  of  nerves  extending 
from  it  on  each  side.  1  is  motory,  2  is 
sensatory  •,  beyond  3  they  are  enclosed 
in  one  sheath,  and  no  longer  distin- 
guishable. All  the  spinal  nerves  are 
similar.  Where  they  arise  from  the 
spinal  cord,  they  are  seen  to  be  nu- 
merous ;  they  are  equally  so  in  their 
sheath. 

219.  Inf.  —  NERVES  are  only  channels  for  conducting 
influences. 

220.  Inf.  —  THERE  MUST  BE  two  kinds  of  Ganglia 
for  the  muscles,  one  to  exert  an  influence  through,  and 
another  to  receive  one  from,  the  two  kinds  of  nerves. 

221.  Inf.  —  THE   MUSCLES   are   both   sensatory  and 
motory  —  they  must  be  the  latter  in  order  to  be  the  former 
—  and  the  control  of  them  as  motory  organs  is  dependent 
on  their  sensory  action. 

222.  A  REVIEW  OF  ALL  THE    SENSATORY   APPARATUS 

will  show  that  each  kind  is  composed  of  three  organs, 
as  follows  : 

Organ  of  Sense  ;  Nerve  ;  Ganglion  ; 
and  that 

223.  THE  SENSATORY  APPARATUS  is  of  two  classes, 
one  wholly  devoted  to  the  internal  condition  of  the  body, 
its  organs  of  sense  corresponding  to  all  the  organs  of 
the  body  ;    the  other  devoted  to  gaining  for  the  mind 


218.  What  —  ?    Table.    Describe  Fie.  76.    219.  What  are  —  ?    220.  How  many 
kinds  of  Qanglia  related  to  muscles  ?    221.  What  are  —  ?    222.  —  shows  what  ? 


<6  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

the  data  of  knowledge  of  external  objects,  its  organs  of 
sense  being  of  six  kinds,  corresponding  to  the  kinds  of 
apparatus  to  which  they  belong,  as  follows :  (to  be  read 
from  right  to  left.) 

f  General— Ganglia;  Nerves;  Gene- 

SENSATORY  APPARATUS \         ral  0rSans  of  Sense'  (^ 

Eye. 

[Specials Ganglia; Nerves; Organs  J  Nose. 

of     ]  Mouth. 
Sense.     Skin. 

L  Muscles. 

Parts  of  the  Skeleton  are  also  to  be  appropriated  to 
the  Apparatus  of  Sensation,  for,  though  in  one  respect 
not  essential  to  sensation,  it  has  been  constituted  in  some 
particulars  with  especial  reference  to  the  Sensatory  Ap- 
paratus. 

224.  Inf. — ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY,  however  minute, 
are  connected  with  the  Ganglia  of  the  Brain  by  means  of 
nerves,  and  can  produce  an  infinite  number  of  sensations. 

225.  Query. — Is  each  different  kind  of  sensation  pro- 
duced by  different  nerves,  or  can  many  kinds  of  sensa- 
tion be  produced  through  the  same  nerve  ? 

226.  MANY  DIFFERENT  SENSATIONS  CAN  BE  CAUSED 
THROUGH  THE  SAME  NERVE,  for  in  the  use  of  the  eye  all 
the   different   colors   at  different  times  act  on  all   the 
nerves,  and  are  equally  recognized  by  each. 

227.  Query. — ARE  ALL  THE  NERVES  ALIKE,  being 
only  channels  of  different  influences,  or  are  the  Ganglia 
unlike? 

228.  THE  SAME  CAUSE  PRODUCES  DIFFERENT  SENSA- 
TIONS by  acting  on  different  nerves.     The  nerve  of  sight 
pinched,  pricked,  or  cut  across,  does  not  cause  a  sensa- 
tion of  pain,  but  of  light.     Electricity  passed  through 
the  nerves  of  muscular   sense,  of  touch,  taste,  smell, 
sight,  and  hearing,  produces  in  each  case  the  sensation 
appropriate  to  the  nerve.     Therefore,  either  the  nerves 
or  the  ganglia  differ  from  each  other,  probably  the  latter, 

223.   Row  is  classed  —  ?      Write   table.      What  relation  has  the  skeleton  to 
8.  Ap.  ?    224.  What  cao  —  produce  ?    2J6.  Cun  —  ?    227  —  ?    223  Does  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS. 


77 


the  nerves  are  probably  alike,  and  were  the  nerve  of 
smell  exchanged  for  that  of  sight  the  result  would  prob- 
ably be  the  same  as  now ;  or,  if  the  termination  of  the 
nerve  of  smell  could  be  transferred  to  the  ganglion  of 
sight  (optic  ganglion),  an  odorous  particle  acting  through 
the  nose  would  probably  produce  a  sensation  of  light. 

229.  Inf. — THE  NUMBER  OF  GANGLIA  need  not  be  so 
great  as  that  of  the  nerves,  nor  greater  than  that  of  the 
kinds  of  sensations  classed  according  to  the  causes  pro- 
ducing them. 

Appetites  &  their  satisfaction. 

Satiety  &  Repose. 

Ennui  &  Exhilaration. 

Fatigue  &  Rest. 

Disease  &  Health  (normal  and 

abnormal). 
Muscular  Sense. 
Touch. 
Taste. 
Smell. 
Sight. 
Hearing. 

231.  Six  KINDS  OF  GANGLIA  ARE  EVIDENTLY  NECES- 
SARY for  the  production  of  the  Special  Sensations,  while 
for  the  General  Sensations  one  kind  may  be  sufficient, 
though  it  is  probable  that  several  of  the  Appetites  have 
their  peculiar  ganglia. 

232.  APPETITES    are    the    sensations    that    signify, 
strictly  speaking,  when  the  blood  requires  supplies  of 
food — the  demand  for  water  being  called  thirst,  and  for 
air  a  sense  of  suffocation.     But  appetite  is  allowed  to 
include  a  wider  range  than  the  demands  for  supplies  for 
the  blood.     A  sensation  demanding  the  exercise  of  any 
part,  having  its  origin  in  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
physical  system,  is  called  an  appetite. 

233.  Inf. — APPETITE  FOR  FOOD  DIFFERS  from  an  in- 
clination to  gratify  the  palate,  which  is  merely  a  desire 
to  produce  pleasant  sensations  of  taste,  even  to  the  sacri- 
fice of  appetite. 


230. 

(  Pleasant       ) 
f  General    \         &          Vof- 
(  Unpleasant,  ) 

SENSA- 

TIONS 

I  Pleasant,       } 
Special      •<  Unpleasant,  >•  of  - 
(  &  Neutral,     ) 

229.  Relative  —  ?    Write  and  describe  table  of  sensations.    231.  Why  are  —  ? 
2.  What  are  —  ?    233.  From  what  does  —  ? 


78  GENERAL   ANALYSIS 

234.  Inf. — ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY  CRAVE  exercise, 
especially  if  they  are  in  the  habit  of  being  exercised, 
and  this  demand,  with  the  succeeding  one  for  relaxation, 
may  well  be  called  an  appetite,  since  they  must  be  treat- 
ed like  an  appetite,  the  pleasant  and  unpleasant  effects 
being  the  same.^ 

235.  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY  ARE  COMPOSED 
of  different  substances,  and  demand  different  kinds  of 
food ;  and  as  the  appetites  have  their  seat  or  exciting 
cause  in  the  part  that  needs  the  food,  the  appetites  for 
food  ought  to  differ,  or  crave  different  kinds  of  food. 

236.  Inf. — THERE  OUGHT  TO  BE  a  muscular  appetite, 
a  nervous  appetite,  an  osseous  appetite,  an  appetite  for 
calorific  food,  for  food  for  the  secretions,  &c. 

237.  Him. — IF  A  BONE  BE  BROKEN,  very  much  food 
and  of  peculiar  kinds  should  be  craved ;  often  it  is  thought 
because  the  man  is  not  using  his  muscles,  he  is  not  doing 
much ;  he  is — he  is  growing  new  bone,  and  will  digest 
much  food. 

238.  STUDENTS   DO  NOT  ALWAYS  LEARN  TO   DISTIN- 
GUISH a  nervous  appetite,  entirely  unlike  a  muscular  or 
calorific  one  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed,  and 
more  like  a  feeling  of  exhaustion  or  irritability,  that  ex- 
perience soon  teaches  can  be  overcome  by  eating  the 
right  kind  of  food. 

239.  TEACHERS  DO  NOT  ALWAYS  distinguish,  in  the 
lassitude,  uneasiness,   and   discomfort   of  their  pupils, 
or  even  of  themselves,  the  indications  of  an  appetite  for 
air. 

240.  Inf. — It  is  certainly  very  unfortunate  for  per- 
sons in  so  important  relations  as  teachers  and  students, 
not  to  know  what  is  the  matter  with  themselves,  nor 
what  to  do  to  Improve  their  condition  ! 

241.  THE  APPETITES  ARE  RELATED  to  sensations  of 
Satisfaction,  Satietyr  Repose,  Ennui,  Exhilaration,  Fa- 
tigue, Rest,  Exhaustion,  and  Quiet ;  all  of  which  may  be 
produced  through  the  same  apparatus  as  appetites. 

234.  What  do  —  ?     285.   How  are—?     236.   What  —  ?     237.  What  if—? 
28a  What  do  not  —  ?        240.  What  is  unfortunate  ?    241.  How  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OP    APPARATUS.  79 

242.  ABNORMAL  SENSATIONS,  or  those  of  Disease,  in- 
clude all  kinds  of  pains,  those  from  injuries  as  well.     In 
many  instances  the  same  diseases  produce  different  sen- 
sations in  different  organs,  and  different  diseases  produce 
different  sensations  in  the  same  part. 

243.  NORMAL  SENSATIONS,  or  those  of  Health,  are  the 
constant  inspiring  source  of  enjoyment  always  produced 
by  parts  when  free  from  disease.     They  do  not  require 
any  special  apparatus,  nor  do  those  of  disease. 

244.  ALL  THE  GENERAL  SENSATIONS  are  pleasant  or 
unpleasant,  to  induce  or  prevent  their  repetition. 

245.  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  SPECIAL  SENSES  EXCITE  an 
appetite  for  exercise  and   repose,  sensations  of  fatigue 
and  rest ;  possess  health  and  are  diseased,  like  all  parts 
of  the  body;  and  in  the  same  manner  promote  enjoy- 
ment. 

246.  EACH  OF  THE  SENSES  has  its  peculiar  activity, 
excited  by  external  objects,  and  their  mode  of  action  will 
determine  the  character  of  the  sensations. 

24  Y.  Ittus. — FISH  BEFORE  MEAT  is  palatable,  after 
it,  insipid.  A  Red  color  succeeding  Green,  Orange 
succeeding  Blue,  &c.  are  agreeable.  Combinations  of 
certain  notes  please,  &c.  (See  App.  K.) 

248.  CERTAIN   SENSATIONS  of  the  special  class  are 
neutral,  having  relation  only  to  the  acquisition  of  know- 
ledge, and  being  indifferent  to  the  physical  system. 

249.  THE  OBJECT  OF  LIFE  being  activity,  and  the  re- 
pair of  the  body  requiring  its  relaxation,  alternate  activ- 
ity and  relaxation  ought  to  be  the  conditions  productive 
of  the  highest  physical  enjoyments. 

250.  To   KNOW   HOW  TO   ALTERNATE   the  activities 
and  repose  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body  directly,  and 
by  arranging  objects  to  act  favorably  through  the  senses, 
is  to  possess  the  art  of  making  life  pleasant  both  to  the 
possessor  and  to  others. 


242.  What  do  —  ?    243.  What  are  -  -?    244.  What  are  —  ?    245.  What  do  —  ? 
246.  What  has  —  ?  247  How  is  —  ?   243.  What  are  —  ?   249.  What  —  ?  250.  Why? 


80  GENEKAL    ANALYSIS. 

SECTION  H. 

Motory  Organs. 

251.  MOTIONS  of  several  different  kinds  are  required 
in  the  Body. 

252.  CHEMICAL  AFFINITY  AND  CAPILLARY  ATTRAC- 
TION MUST  OPERATE  IN  THE  BODY  as  well  as  out  of  it,  and 
produce  movements  in  the  particles  over  which  they  ex- 
ert their  sway. 

253.  THE  CILIA  OF  THE  CILIATED  CELLS  MUST  PER- 
FORM their  wonderful  though   unobtrusive  movements 
at  the  surfaces  where  they  are  needed,  all  within  the 
limits  of  microscopic  observation. 

FIG.  77.  Fig.  77  represents  2,  cilia,  very  minute  extensions 

of  the  surface  ends  of  four  cells,  1,  very  much  magni- 
fied. The  cilia  have  an  exceedingly  rapid  vibratory 
motion,  tending  to  move  along  any  substance  resting 
on  them.  The  cause  of  their  motion  is  not  at  all  under- 
stood, nor  even  conjectured.  4,  other  cells,  growing  to 
take  the  place  of  1.  5,  basement  membrane,  from  which 
4  take  their  rise.  6,  sub-tissue,  containing  Blood  tubes, 
&-c.  3,  nucleus  of  cells. 

254.  ELASTICITY  COMES  INTO  PLAY  very  frequently 
in  the  production  of  motion,  and  without  it  the  body 
could  not  exist. 

255.  THE  MOTIONS  CAUSED  BY  AFFINITY,  ATTRAC- 
TION, CILIA,  AND  ELASTICITY,  are  called  non-nervous,  be- 
cause they  are  not  directly  influenced  by  nerves,  and  of 
course  are  not  under  the  direct  control  of  the  mind. 

256.  THE  MIND  REQUIRES  the  means  of  producing 
motion  at  its  option  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 

257.  THE   REQUIREMENT  OF  THE  MIND  is  THREE- 
FOLD.    1st.  Various  parts  of  the  Body  are  to  exhibit 
motions  at  the  option  of  the  mind.     2d.  It  follows  that 
they  must  be  connected  with  the  centre  of  the  Body, 
where  the  mind  has  been  shown  to  be;  and,   3d.  The 

251.  What— does  the  Body  require?  252  Does—?  253.  What  must  — ?  Describe 
Fig.  77.  254.  When  does  —  ?  255.  What  —  called  ?  256.  What  does—  ?  257.  What  —  T 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS.  81 

mind  must  have  means  there  from  which  to  discharge 
an  influence  to  act  through  the  conducting  medium 
upon  the  parts  that  are  to  directly  cause  the  motion. 

258.  THE  SIMPLEST  FORM  OF  MOTORY  APPARATUS 
imaginable,  would  be  a  Ganglion  to  produce  an  influence 
at  the  option  or  will  of  the  mind,  a  nerve  to  conduct  the 
influence,  and  a  part  or  organ  to  receive  the  influence 
and  shorten  (contract)  or  lengthen  (relax)  accordingly. 

259.  AN  APPARATUS  COMPOSED  OF  ONLY  THREE  OR- 
GANS will  seem  to  be  too  simple  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing nervous  motion,  when  the  great  number  and  ap- 
parently complicated  motions  in  the  Human  Body  are 
considered,  some  of  them  almost  infinitely  delicate,  as 
in  producing  the  shades  of  speech,  and  others  as  rude 
and  as  strong  as  the  grasp  of  a  madman. 

260.  Query. — Is  it  possible  that  every  nervous  mo- 
tion, each  mental  expression  and  the  beating  of  the  heart, 
the  winking  of  the  eye  and  the  inhalation  of  air,  the 
voice  of  command  and  the  whispered  lullaby,  the  beck- 
oning hand  and  the  repulsing  foot,  the  writhings  of 
anguish  and  the  merry  laugh  of  joy,  the  ploughman's 
labor  and  the  boy's  play,  are  all  performed  by  the  action 
of  an  apparatus  so  simple  as  to  be  composed  of  only 
three  kinds  of  organs  ? 

261.  IN  FACT,  ONLY  GANGLIA,  J^ERVES,  AND  MlJSCLES 

are  necessary  for  constituting  a  motory  apparatus,  and 
performing  all  the  varied  nervous  motions  in  the  Human 
Body  not  only,  but  also  in  the  bodies  of  all  animals ; 
the  swiftness  of  the  bird,  the  strength  of  the  beast,  the 
wriggling  of  the  serpent,  and  the  hum  of  the  insect,  are 
due  to  the  same  three  kinds  of  organs  of  a  motory  ap- 
paratus. 

262.  Inf. — THE  MOST  PERFECT  AND  WONDERFUL  RE- 
SULTS are  produced  in  the  Divine  architecture  of  the 
Human  Body  in  the  simplest  manner. 

263.  THE  REASONS  WHY  THE  THREE  KINDS  OF  Mo- 


258.  What  is  — ?    259.  What  will  —  seem  ?    260.  What  is  —  ?    261.  What  neces- 
sary for  motion  ?    252.  How  arc  —  produced  ?    263.  What  are  —  ? 

4* 


82 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


TORY  ORGANS  SEEM  INADEQUATE,  are  because  the  results 
of  motion  are  so  numerous,  and  likewise  so  diverse,  that 
at  first  glance  it  does  not  seem  reasonable  that  they 
should  have  a  similar  cause ;  but  motion  is  the  simple 
idea  in  all  the  cases,  and  the  direction  or  mode  in  which 
it  will  be  exhibited  will  depend  upon, 

264.  THE  DIFFERENCE  IN  SIZE,  FORM,  AND  POSITION 
of  similar  apparatus,  which  will  account  for  all  the  re- 
sults of  nervous  motions  observable  in  the  body. 

265.  Size. — SUPPOSE   a   minute   oblong   cylindrical 
cell,  shaped  like  a  bead,  to  have  the  power  of  alternately 
contracting,  or  shortening,  and  relaxing  when  nervous 
influence  is  sent  into  it.     This  will  be  the  element  of  all 
nervous  motion,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  cells  properly 
arranged  will  produce  all  the  results  desirable. 

FIG.  78.  Fig.  78,  a  plan  of 

Muscle-Cells.  7,  8, 
cells,  end  to  end;  1, 
cells  end  to  end  and 
side  by  side ;  6,  same, 
spread;  2,  3,  4,  bun- 
dle of  cells,  separable 
into  discs,  of  which 
5  is  one.  The  form 
of  the  bundles  is  very 
irregular  in  the  mus- 
cles. The  size  here 
is  very  much  magni- 
fied. 

266.  IF  CELLS  BE  CONNECTED,  END  TO  END,  they  will 

increase  the  extent  of  motion. 

267.  Inf. — IF  ONE  CELL  CAN  SHORTEN  only  to  the 
extent  of  one  hundredth  the  thickness  of  a  hair,  a  hun- 
dred cells  would  produce  motion  to  the  extent  of  a  hair's 
breadth,  and  a  million  of  cells  would  produce  a  very 
appreciable  motion. 

268.  IF    THE    CELLS    BE    CONNECTED,    SIDE    BY    SIDE, 

will  increase  the  strength  of  motion. 

269.  Inf. — IF  ONE  CELL  COULD  NOT  BEND  A  HAIR, 


264.  For  what  will  —  account  ?    265.  What  are  you  to  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  78. 
266.  What  if  —  ?    2€7.  What  is  said  —  ?    268.  What  is  said  —  ?    269.  What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OP    APPARATUS. 


83 


two  cells  might,  and  enough  millions  would  exert  all 
the  strength  desirable. 

270.  EXTENT  AND  STRENGTH  OF  MOTION  ARE  DETER- 
MINED by  the  number  of  cells  placed  end  to  end  and 
side  by  side. 

271.  Inf. — ONE  HUNDRED  CELLS  WILL  BE  REQUIRED 
to  produce  at  once  the  extent  and  strength  of  motion 
for  either  of  which  alone  ten  cells  would  suffice. 

272.  Form. — IF  A  SERIES  OF  CELLS  is  FORMED  INTO 
A  CIRCLE  OR  OBLONG,  their  contraction  will  diminish  the 
circle,  and  close  or  tend  to  close  the  orifice  about  which 
they  are  placed.    (See  muscle  around  the  eyes  in  Fig.  71.) 

273.  IF    RINGS   FORMED    OF  CELLS  BE  PLACED  BY  THE 

SIDE  OF  EACH  OTHER,  a  contractile  tube  will  be  formed, 
and  by  the  successive  contraction  and  relaxation  of  its 
rings,  substances  can  be  forced  through  it.  (1,  Fig.  70.) 

274.  IF    CELLS    ALSO    EXTEND  LENGTHWISE  the  tube, 

it  will  be  shortened  ip  length  by  their  contraction. 
.Fie.  79.  IA  FIG.  80. 


Fig.  79,  a,  represents  the  diagonal,  b,  the  circular,  and  e, 
the  longitudinal  fibres,  formed  of  muscle-cells,  in  the  (Eso- 
phagus :  that  at  1,  Fig.  80,  opens  into,  the  stomach,  of  which 
5  is  the  outer  coat,  dissected  and  turned  back  from  7,  8,  9, 
the  muscular  fibres,  extending,  as  shown  by  the  lines,  in 
different  directions. 


270.  By  what  -?     271.  For  what  —  ?     272.  What  effect  -?    273.  What—? 
274.  What  if  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  79.    Fig.  80. 


84 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


275.  IF  RINGS  OR  PARTIAL  RINGS  OF  CELLS  BE  SO  IN- 
TERWOVEN AS  TO  form  a  pouch,  its  contents  may  be  com- 
pressed, moved  about,  or  expelled,  according  to  the  pe- 
culiar action  of  the  rings. 

2  76.   MUSCLES  MAY  THEREFORE  BE  CLASSED  us  follows : 

(  Direct. 

MUSCLES -J  Circular. 

(  Pouched. 

277.  Position. — IT  is  EVIDENT  that  if  a  part  to  be 
moved  by  a  direct  muscle  is  small,  only  a  few  cells  can 
be  attached  to  it,  so  that  if  it  is  to  be  moved  with  much 
force,  a  modified  arrangement  must  be  made. 

278.  IF   A   SMALL,  STRONG  CORD,  OR  IF  A  MEMBRANE, 

is  ATTACHED  to  the  part  to  be  moved,  the  cells  in  any 
required  number  can  be  attached  to  it,  and  though  they 
will  be  obliged  to  act  at  some  disadvantage,  yet  their 
number  can  be  correspondingly  increased. 

.  81. 


Fig.  81,  1,  Bone  supporting  those  of  a  finger;  2,  tendon, 
branching  at  *  to  each  side  of  b ;  3,  tendon  passing  between 
branches  of  2,  and  attached  to  the  tip-bone,  c.  Muscles  in  the 
arm  connect  with  these  tendons. 

Fig.  82*  beautiful  view  of  some  parts  of  a  Hand.  1,  2,  ar- 
teries ;  9,  10,  tendons,  corresponding  to  2,  3,  Fig.  80,  that  ex- 
tend  up  the  wrist  to  the  muscle-cells  connected  with  them  in  the 
lower  front  part  of  the  arm. 


275.  What  -?    276.  How  may  — ?    277.  What  — ?    278.  What  —  T    Describe 
Fig.  81.    Fig.  82. 


SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS.  85 

279.  THE  BEAUTY  AND   CONVENIENCE   OF   A   PART 
WILL  OFTEN  DICTATE  that  the  cells  by  which  it  is  to  be 
moved  shall  not  be  placed  directly  in  connection  with 
it,  but  at  a  little  distance,  and  act  upon  it  through  the 
medium  of  tendons. 

280.  VARIOUS  RESULTS  CAN  BE  PRODUCED  by  a  suc- 
cession of  different  contractions,  or  by  combined  con- 
tractions, neither  of  which  could  alone  effect  the  object. 

281.  THUS  HAS  THE  ONE    ELEMENTARY   MUSCLE-CELL 

the  potential  property  that,  properly  applied,  in  connec- 
tion with  an  appropriate  framework,  will  produce  all  re- 
quired nervous  motions. 

282.  A  FRAMEWORK  is  NOT  ESSENTIAL  to  a  motory 
apparatus,  for  certain  motions  can  be  produced  without 
a  framework ;  but, 

283.  THE  COMPLETE  EFFECTS  OF  MOTORY  APPARATUS 
REQUIRE  a  framework  light  and  strong,  having  a  large 
surface,  and  composed  with  many  joints  of  varying  char- 
acter. 

284.  THE  FRAMEWORK  AND  THE  MOTORY  APPARA- 
TUS MUST  BE  MUTUALLY  ADAPTED  TO  EACH  OTHER,  SO  that 

what  is  impossible  in  the  Framework  may  be  supplied 
by  adaptation  in  the  Motory  Apparatus,  and  what  is 
impossible  in  the  Motory  Apparatus  may  be  supplied  in 
the  Framework. 

285.  THE   MOTORY  APPARATUS  AND  THE   FRAME- 
WORK are,  in  one  sense,  parts  of  one  whole,  and  not  to 
be  separated  in  action,  as  reasons  for  the  construction  of 
each  are  to  be  found  in  the  necessities  of  the  other. 

286.  THE  CRANIUM,  or  framework,  containing  the 
brain,  is  the  only  part  of  the  whole  skeleton  that  is  not 
constructed  with  reference  to  the  production  of  motion. 

287.  JOINTS  to  the  number  of  more  than  two  hun- 
dred will  be  needed  in  the  right  and  left  skeleton,  and 
their  exquisite  beauty,  and  the  perfection  of  their  adap- 

279.  What— ?    280.  How— ?   281.  What  has  —  ?    282.  Why  —  ?    283.  — what? 
234  Why  —  ?    285.  What  ar*  —  ?    286.  What  is  —  ?    287.  What  said  of  —  ? 


86  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

tation,  will  surprise  and  delight  the  student  when  he 
studies  their  details. 

288.  ON  THE  OTHER  HAND,  the  connecting  nerves 
and  the  Ganglia  that  send  influences  through  them  must 
be  adapted  to  the  contractions,  their  combinations  and 
successions. 

289.  HOW  THE    NERVE    EXERTS  ITS  INFLUENCE  Upon 

the  cell,  what  the  essence  of  that  influence  is,  or  how  it 
is  generated  in  the  Ganglia,  is  not  known ;  whether  it 
is  of  the  same  nature  as  the  influence  producing  sensa- 
tion is  uncertain,  but  it  is  probably  different. 

290.  THE  NERVES  THROUGH  WHICH  MOTION  is  PRO- 
DUCED must  be  different  from  those  through  which  sen- 
sation is  caused,  because  both  are  produced  at  the  same 
time. 

291.  IN  THE  BODY,  GENERALLY,  BOTH  KINDS  OF 

NERVES  ARE  FOUND  in  the  same  bundle,  since  their  out- 
ward direction  is  the  same ;  but  as  they  approach  their 
inner  termination,  their  course  being  to  different  Gan- 
glia, they  separate  and  show  their  twofold  character. 
(Fig.  76.) 

292.  THE  CONTRACTION  OF  SOME  PARTS  BEING  ASSO- 
CIATED with  several  others,  in  the  production  of  different 
motions,  the  nerves  ought  to  associate  them  with  several 
centres. 

293.  Illus. — THE  CONTRACTIONS  OF  THE  CHEST  ARE 
USED  in  simple  breathing,  in  sneezing,  in  speech,  and  in 
several  other  combinations. 

294.  THE  MOTORY  GANGLIA  MUST  BE   DIFFERENT 
from  the  Sensatory  Ganglia,  since  their  offices  are  so  dif- 
ferent, and  both  are  active  at  the  same  time. 

295.  THE  MOTORY  MUST  BE  INTIMATELY  ASSOCIATED 
WITH  THE  SENSATORY  GANGLIA,  since  it  is  often  necessary 
that  the  causes  of  sensation  should  excite  the  muscles  to 
activity  without  the  apparent  intervention  of  the  mind. 


288.  What  said  —  ?    289.  Is  it  known  —  ?    290.  What  is  said  -  ?    291.  What  is 
•aid  —  ?  292.  What  is  said  of  - ?    293.  Illus.    294.  Why  ?    295.  Why  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPABATUS.  87 

296.  IIIUS. A    BAREFOOT    BOY    STEPS    ON   A   THORN. 

flis  foot  must  be  raised  quicker  than  thought,  and  the 
•Same  cause  that  excites  a  sensation  of  pain  must  cause 
Ihe  ganglion  to  exert  an  influence  on  the  contractile 
•muscles  that  raise  the  foot. 

297.  IlluS. IN   PLAYING   AN   INSTRUMENT,    it   IS    de- 

Birable  to  have  the  familiar  sounds  of  the  oft-played 
tones  influence  the  motions  necessary  to  produce  the 
succeeding  ones,  so  that  the  piece  may  be  played  with- 
out thought. 

298.  THE  GANGLIA  OF  MOTION  DIFFER  from  those  of 
sensation,  and  from  each  other,  in  size,  form,  and  position, 
and  somewhat  in  their  internal  structure;  but  the  ra- 
tionale of  their  structure  or  their  action  is  but  very 
slightly  understood,  nor  can  any  one  say  how  many  of 
them  there  ought  to  be,  or  are. 

299.  IT    IS    PROBABLE    NOT    ONLY,    BUT    IT  SEEMS    NE- 
CESSARY, that  there  should  be  a  ganglion  for  the  produc- 
tion of  each  class  or  group  of  motions,  so  that  they 
shall  take  place  simultaneously ;  and  the  distribution  of 
the  nerves  seems  to  prove  this. 

300.  THE  SMALL  BRAIN,  OR  CEREBELLUM,  has  been 
supposed  to  be  a  Motory  Ganglion,  adapted  to  harmonize 
the  movements  of  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  adjust  or 
balance  the  action  of  all  the  muscles. 

301.  THE    MOTORY    APPARATUS    is    conclusively 
proved  to  be  composed  as  follows : 

(Ganglia,     f 

MOTORY  APPARATUS •<  Nerves. 

(Muscles.     § 

302.  THE  MOTORY  APPARATUS  INCLUDES  much  the 
larger  part  of  the  body  by  weight ;  if  the  skeleton  is 
included,  not  less  than  three  fourths. 

303.  THE   ELEMENTARY  MOTORY  APPARATUS  is   a 
minute  portion  of  brain,  a  correspondingly  minute  nerve, 
and  a  muscle-cell,  all  of  which,  to  be  seen,  must  be  exam- 


296.  What  if  —  ?      297.  What  said  of  —  ?    29S.  How  do  —  ?    299.  What  —  ? 
800.  What  is  —  ?    301.  How  —  composed  ?    302.  What  does  —  ?    803.  What  is  —  t 


88  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

ined  with  a  microscope,  and  are  simply  repeated  or  mul- 
tiplied billions  of  times,  and  properly  arranged  to  pro- 
duce the  grand  result,  the  Motory  Apparatus. 
Elementary  Apparatus. 

SPart  of  Ganglion,  )  t      Entire 

Nerve-fibre,  >•  x  by  billions  =  -j     Motory 

Muscle-cell,  )  ( Apparatus. 

304.  Inf. — IT  CANNOT    BE   DIFFICULT  TO   COMPRE- 
HEND the  character,  necessities,  and  methods  for   per- 
fecting an  apparatus  so  simple  in  its  structure  as  the 
Motory. 

305.  •    Ihf. To    UNDERSTAND   THE    MOTORY  APPARA- 

Tus  is  to  understand  a  large  part  of  the  body. 

306.  THE   MOTORY  APPARATUS  INCLUDES,  IN  ONE 
SENSE,  a  part  of  the  Sensatory,  as,  for  the  perfect  action 
of  the  motory,  sensations  must  be  caused.     The  amount 
of  influence  sent  down  to  cause  contraction  might  deter- 
mine the  intended  motion,  but  any  opposition  would  re- 
quire greater  exertion.     The  sense  of  Touch  must  also 
be  a  guide  in  the  production  of  many  motions. 

307.  Illus. — A  man  who  had  lost  the  sense  of  Touch 
for  two  years,  when  seen  by  the  author,  would  drop  any- 
thing from  his  hand  except  it  was  under  his  eye,  by 
which,  also,  he  was  obliged  to  guide  his  steps,  observing 
when  his  foot  was  on  the  ground. 

308.  SEVERAL  OF  THE   SENSATORY   GANGLIA  ARE 
doubtless  in  intimate  relation  with  the  Motory  Ganglia, 
influencing  them  to  actions  required  for  the  safety  or 
convenience  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 

309.  INFLUENCES  CONSTANTLY  POUR  IN  UPON  THE 
MIND  through  the  Sensatory  Apparatus,  and  influences 
flow  out  through  the  Motory. 

310.  A  COMPLETE  CIRCUIT  is  FORMED  by  the  Sensa- 
tory and  Motory  Apparatus,  the  mind  being  included  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  External  World  on  the  other,  as 
follows : 


Write  table.    804.  What  —  ?    805.  —  is  what?    306.  What  docs  — ?    807.  What 
eald  of  —  ?    808.  What  said  of  —  ?    809.  How  do  —  ?    810.  How  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  89 


Organs  /-Ear, 

Ganglia  ;   Nerves  ;       of     J  Eye,         rf  2 

Sense   1  Nose,       |  £ 

Mouth,    -3  F 

1  Skin,       £  « 

Ganglia  ;   Nerves  ;     .     .       Muscles, 


311.  MUSCLES  ARE  INCLUDED  among  the  organs  of 
sense,  and  are  the  only  organs  that  require  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  mind  by  two  kinds  of  nerves. 

312.  Inf.  —  SENSATION   AND   MOTION   are  the  only 
functions  needed  by  the  mind,  not  only  for  superintend- 
ing all  the  operations  in  the  body,  but  all  its  relations 
to  the  external  world. 

313.  Inf.  —  This  is  another  exhibition  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  beauty,  simplicity,  and  completeness  are 
exhibited  in  the  construction  of  the  human  body. 

SECTION  III. 
Emotory  Organs. 

314.  EMOTIONS  are  functions,  for  producing  which 
the  mind  requires  the  activity  of  Ganglia  only. 

315.  THAT  EMOTIONS  RESULT  FROM  THE  ACTIVITY  OF 
THE  GANGLIA  is  proved  by  the  effects  of  ether,  laughing 
gas,  tickling,  and  other  physical  causes  that  excite  emo- 
tions, despite  the  will  of  the  mind  that  they  shall  not. 

316.  How  THE  MIND  AND  EMOTORY  GANGLIA  act 
upon  each  other,  or  how  they  should  be  classed,  is  a 
profound  mystery,  the  solution  of  which,  it  is  hoped, 
will  be  made  ere  long,  and  immortalize  the  discoverer. 

317.  THE  EMOTORY  GANGLIA  ARE  ALSO  RELATED  to 
the  Sensatory  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  Motor  y  on 
the  other,  through  which  they  are  constantly  manifest- 
ing their  activities,  as  illustrated  in  the  following  tables, 
in  which  the  arrows  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the 
influence  is  exerted  :  the  Mind  acting  on  and  being  acted 
on  by  the  Emotory  Ganglia,  is  connected  by  two  arrows  : 

Write  table      811.  With  what—?     312.  What  said  of—?     314.  What  are? 
315.  How  proved  —  ?    316.  What  said  of  —  ?    31T.  How  —  ? 


90  GENERAL    ANALYsis. 


EMOTORY  GANGLIA  are  related  to  fy  Ganglia. 

Ganglia. 
Organs  .  Ear. 

Sensatory  Ganglia  ;   Nerves  ;       of    I  Eye. 
5  Sense  ]  Nose. 

Emotory    Ganglia  ;  Mouth. 

§  Skin. 

Motory       Ganglia;  Nerves;       .     .  ^Muscles. 


SECTION   IV. 

Intellectory   Organs. 

318.  INTELLECTIONS  are   functions  for  the  produc- 
tion of  which  the  mind  requires  Ganglia  only.     The  ele- 
ments of  facts  it  can  receive  through  the  Sensatory  Ap- 
paratus, and  its  determinations  can  be  executed  through 
the  Motory  Apparatus. 

319.  THE  INTELLECTORY  GANGLIA  MUST  BE  INTI- 
MATELY RELATED  to  the  Sensatory  and  Motory ;  they  are 
also  related  to  the  Emotory,  but  not  very  intimately — the 
latter  being  more  readily  excited  to  activity  in  early 
life,  and  the  former  retaining  their  vigor  till  declining 
years,  dying  the  last  of  all,  in  the  perfectly  healthy  per- 
son. 

320.  IT  is  VERY  IMPORTANT  to  particularly  observe 
the  intimate  relation  that  must  exist  between  the  Emo- 
tory and  Intellectory  Ganglia  and  the   Motory;    this 
shows  how 

321.  HABITUAL   EMOTORY   AND   INTELLECTORY   AC- 
TIONS INFLUENCE  muscular  action,  so  that  the  Emotory 
and  Intellectory  character  of  a  person  is  sure  to  be  ex- 
hibited. 

322.  Inf. — IP  ANY  PERSON  THINKS  HE  CAN   DECEIVE 

OTHERS  in  regard  to  his  habitual  character,  he  deceives 
only  himself — a.  child  or  even  a  dog  will  detect  him, 
at  once. 


Write  tables.   Explain  them.    818.  What— ?   819.  To  what  — ?    820.  What  — f 
I.  What  do  -  ?    822.  What  is  eaid  If  -  f 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OP   APPARATUS. 


91 


323.  Inf. — EMOTIONS  MOST  READILY  AFFECTING  EX- 
PRESSION in  early  life,  and  Intellections  in  later  life,  the 
respective  ganglia  by  which  they  are   produced  must 
predominate  at  those  periods. 

324.  The  following  tables  illustrate  the  relations  of 
the  Intellectory  Ganglia : 


INTELLECTORY  GANGLIA  are  related  to  the- 


< — ^-Sensatory  Ganglia. 
< — wEmotory  Ganglia. 
L;a» — >Motory  Ganglia. 


Mentory   Organs. 


Sensatory 

o 
Ganglia  ; 

Organs 
Nerves;  of 
Sense  ; 

rEar, 
Eye, 

R8S 

Emotory 

Ganglia  ; 

Nose, 

§  ^ 

a      a 

Mouth 

0>    _ 

Intellectory 

Ganglia  ; 

Skin, 

**"    fl 
02   0 

Motory 

Ganglia; 

Nerves  ;    .    . 

_  Muscles, 

H 

325.  THE  MIND  is .  ASSOCIATED  with  four  kinds  of 
Ganglia,  all  double,  and  collectively  forming  the  brain 
or  brains. 

326.  FROM  THE  BRAIN  THE  MIND  REACHES  OUT  into 
the  various  parts  of  the  body,  by  means  of  two  kinds  of 
nerves.     By  one  it  takes  hold  of  the  muscles  only;  by 
the  other  it  draws  in  influences  from  every  part  of  the 
Body,  so  that  by  both  kinds  of  nerves  it  is,  so  to  speak, 
everywhere  present  in  the  Body. 

327.  THE  MIND  SEIZES  UPON  THE  EXTERNAL  WORLD 
and  makes  use  of  it  by  means  of  six  kinds  of  organs  at 
the  extremities  of  the  nerves,  supported  and  assisted  by 
a  skeleton. 

328.  THE  MENTORY  ORGANS  INCLUDE  nine  kinds,  as 
necessary  to  constitute  them :    Ganglia  (four  kinds,  $., 


323.  What  is  said  —  ?    324.  Explain  table.    Write  and  explain  table.    325.  With 
what  —  ?    326.  How  does  —  ?    32T.  How  does  —  ?    328.  What  do  —  ? 


92  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

E.,  L,  M.),  Nerves  (two  kinds,  8.,  M.),  Ear,  Eye,  Nose, 
Mouth,  Skin,  Muscles,  and  the  Skeleton,  to  which  must 
be  added  Blood-tubes,  to  keep  the  organs  in  good  condi- 
tion, making  ten  kinds  of  organs  as  the  number  that 
should  be  enumerated  as  Mentory  Organs. 

329.  THE  MENTORY  ORGANS  EQUAL  the  digits  upon 
both  hands,  with  which  they  may  be  associated ;  putting 
those  which  belong  to  the  Head  only,  on  the  right  hand, 
commencing  with  Ganglia  on  the  thumb,  then  Ear,  Eye, 
Nose,  Mouth ;  Skin  on  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
Muscles,  Nerves,  Skeleton,  and  Blood-tubes  on  the  left 
thumb. 

SECTION  V. 
THE  USES  OF  BLOOD. 

Warming,  Cooling,  Excretion,  Nutrition. 
BLOOD-CIRCULATING  ORGANS. 

330.  EVERY  ACTION  OF  THE  MENTORY  ORGANS — 
every  Sensation,  every  Emotion,-  every  Intellection,  every 
Motion — is  attended  by,  not  only,  but  dependent  upon, 
a  change,  called  a  decomposition,  of  some  of  the  sub- 
stance concerned  in  the  action. 

331.  THE  CHANGE  OR  DECOMPOSITION  is  such  that 
the  substance  is  no  longer  fit  for  use  in  that  part — must 
be  removed,  and  its  place  supplied  with  new  material,  in 
order  that  the  part  may  be  kept  in  a  perfect  condition 
for  use. 

332.  THE  DECOMPOSITION  does  not  take  place  in  any 
particular  portion  of  the  active  part  of  an  organ,  but 
throughout  the  whole — now  here,  now  there;  so  that  in 
the  course  of  time,  and  as  the  result  of  many  actions,  all 
parts  of  all  the  organs  undergo  a  change,  its  rapidity 
depending  on  the  amount  of  action. 

829.  What  do  -  ?    Subject  of  Section  ?    880.  What  is  said  —  t   881.  What  is  -? 
882.  What  is  said  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  93 

333.  Excretion  is  the  name  given  to  that  part  of 
the  process  by  which  the  useless  substance  is  removed. 

334.  Nutrition  is  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  the 
process  by  which  the  organs  are  renewed. 

335.  THERE  is  ANOTHER  CONDITION  ESSENTIAL  TO 

THE    HEALTHY    ACTION  OF  THE    MENTORY  ORGANS  I    they 

must  be  kept  at  certain  temperatures,  for  which 

336.  THEY  MUST  BE  warmed,  on  the  one  hand,  if 
too  cool,  and  cooled,  on  the  other,  if  too  warm ;  hence, 

337.  THE  HEALTHY  ACTION  OF  THE  MENTORY  OR- 
GANS REQUIRES  that  provision  be  made  for  accomplishing 
four  objects  or  processes :  Excretion,  Nutrition,  Warm- 
ing, and  Cooling. 

338.  ALL  FOUR  OBJECTS  CAN  BE  ACCOMPLISHED  by 
a  very  simple  arrangement. 

339.  Let  minute  tubes,  smaller  than  hairs,  and  with 
sides  thinner  than  those  of  a  soap-bubble,  be  interwoven 
like  a  network  through  all  the  active  parts  of  the  organs, 
and  connected  with  two  sets  of  tubes,  one  opening  into, 
and  the  other  out  from,  the  network;  let  these  two  sets 
of  tubes  be  also  connected  with  a  pump  that  shall  receive 
the  contents  of  one  and  pour  them  out  into  the  other ; 
then  fill  this  piece  of  mechanism  with  a  proper  fluid,  and 
connect  with  it  certain  arrangements  to  maintain  the 
supply  in  a  perfect   condition,  and  the  circuit  is  com- 
plete for  supplying  each  of  the  four  necessities  of  the 
organs. 

One  set  of  tubes. 

Network.  Pump. 

Second  set  of  tubes. 


340.  THE  CAPILLARY  (hair-like)  TUBES  OR  VESSELS 
is  the  name  of  a  set  of  microscopic  tubes,  that,  in  the 
form  of  a  network,  are  interwoven  through  the  active 
parts  of  all  organs. 


833.  What  —  ?  834.  What  —  ?  835.  What  —  ?  386.  How  —  ?  337.  What  does  —  1 
888.  How—?    389.  Describe  a  proper  mechanism.    Write  table.    840.  What—? 


94 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


FIG.  83. 


FIG.  84. 


Fig.  83  represents  one  form  of  capillary  network,  very  much  magnified. 
Fig.  84,  part  of  a  frog's  foot,  magnified ;   dotted  lines,  capillary  net- 
work ;    A,  arteries ;   V,  veins ;  arrows  show  direction  of  current. 

341.     THE  VEINS  are  the  names  of  tubes,  continuous 
with  the  capillaries,  that  gradually  unite  together  and 

lead  their  contents  into  the  Heart. 

FIG.  86. 
FIG.  85. 


Fig.  85,  a  section  of  Skin  ;  6,  small  branches  of  veins  connecting  with 
capillary  network  and  uniting  to  form  the  large  branch,  5. 

Fig.  86  represents  the  Veins  of  the  Spleen  uniting  to  form  the  trunk,  1. 


342.  THE  HEART  is  a  muscular  pouch  or  pump 
that  receives  its  contents,  on  one  hand,  from  the  veins, 
and,  being  furnished  with  a  set  of  valves,  throws  out  at 
each  stroke  what  it  receives,  meantime,  into 

Describe  Fte.  S3.  Fig.  84.    841.  What  are -?    Describe  Fig.  85.  Fig.  86.  What 
is  tte  subject  of  PL  5  ?    842.  What  ia  - 1 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPAEATUS.  95 

FIG.  87. 


Fig.  87,  plan  of  h,  Heart,  with  closed  valves,  leading  into  a,  Arteries; 
c,  Capillaries,  leading  into  v,  Veins,  leading  through  open  valves  into  h, 
ready  to  contract,  closing  one  and  opening  the  other  set  of  valves. 

343.     THE  ARTERIES  is  the  name  of  a  set  of  tubes 
that  commence  from  the  Heart  as  a  single  trunk,  and, 
dividing  and  subdividing,  become  continuous  with  the 
capillary  network,  and  pour  their  contents  into  it. 
FIG. 


Fig.  88,  view  of  a  section  of  a  minute  portion  of  the  intestinal  canal. 
14,  Artery,  its  divisions  connected  with  Capillaries  18  and  11,  also  connect- 
ed with  15,  a  vein ;  thus  Blood  is  poured  through  14, 18,  15. 


Describe  Fig.  87.    343.  What  are  —  ?     Describe  fig.  44,  pa?e  27.     Describe 
Fig.  88.    Can  the  course  of  the  blood  be  traced  from  14  round  to  15  ? 


96  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

344.  THE  WHOLE  CIRCUIT  by  which  the  four  necessi- 
ties of  the  organs  are  satisfied,  is  composed  of  only  four 
different  kinds  of  organs,  as  follows  : 

Arteries, 

Arteries,  £f  -? 

Heart,  Capillaries, 

Veins.  Kl  f 


345.  THE  FLUID  CALLED  BLOOD,  with  which  this 
circuit  is  filled,  is  not  a  simple  fluid,  but  must  be  a 
mixture   of*four  classes   of  material:    1st,   The  waste 
substance  produced  by  the  action  of  organs;   2d,  the 
nutritive  material  adapted  to  replace  the  waste  ;  3d,  the 
materials  for  producing  heat  ;  and,  4th,  the  means  of 
cooling  the  organs. 

346.  THE  MOST  WONDERFUL  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE 
BEAUTIFUL  SIMPLICITY  OF  THE  HUMAN  STRUCTURE,  and 
the  gaining  of  desirable  results  by  unexpected  means, 
that  can  be  traced  in  the  whole  system,  is  this  one  sim- 
ple arrangement,  by  means  of  a  single  fluid  to  produce 
complex  and  apparently  unattainable  results. 

347.  THE  BLOOD  COURSING  THROUGH  THE  CAPILLA- 
RIES can  gather  every  decomposing  particle  of  substance 
and  bear  it  away  ;  and  if  in  some  part  of  the  Blood-cir- 
cuit modifying  organs,  and  in  another  part  eliminating 
organs,  are  located,  the  substance  can  either  be  fitted  for 
some  secondary  duty,  or  cast  out  of  the  current  of  the 
blood,  never  more  to  enter  it. 

348.  THE  BLOOD  CAN  NOURISH  THE  ORGANS,  if  prop- 
er organs  for  replenishing  the  Blood  are  applied  to  its 
circuit,  so  that  it  can  receive  nutritious  substances  and 
pour  them  into  the  capillaries,  through  the  sides  of  which 
organs  can  feed  themselves  as  liberally  as  .their  exigen- 
cies demand.     (See  Figs.  90  and  100.) 

349.  THE  BLOOD  CAN  KEEP  THE  ORGANS  WARM,  if 


844.  What  is  said  of  —  ?    845.  What  is  —  ?    846.  What  is  —  ?    847.  What  is  said 
of  —  f    848.  How  —  ?    849.  HOW  _  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  97 

it  be  itself  warmed;  it  can  be,  1st,  by  the  action  of 
the  organs  themselves,  which  always  produces  heat ;  and 
2d,  by  receiving  substances  that  are  burned  in  it ;  also, 
if  it  move  around  rapidly  it  will  distribute  as  well  as 
produce  heat  more  rapidly.  This  important  result  can  be 
gained  by  having  its  motion  quickened,  or  its  quantity 
lessened  by  removing  its  water,  for  that  does  not  dimin- 
ish its  heat-producing  substance ;  the  result  will  be  still 
greater  if  its  motion  is  quickened  and  its  water  lessened 
at  the  same  time.  Therefore,  there  should  be  connected 
with  its  circuit  an  organ  that  can  rapidly  remove  water 
without  evaporating  it,  or  causing  thirst ;  for  if  that  exist, 
water  will  be  drank,  and  no  more  heat  be  produced  than 
before. 

350.  THE  BLOOD  CAN  COOL  THE   ORGANS   through 
which  it  passes,  if  it  is  itself  cooled,  as  it  can  be  if  it 
receive  substances  that  prevent  the  production  of  heat, 
if  it  be  largely  diluted,  and  if  it  have  associated  with  it 
an  organ  that  can  take  from  it  water,  and  evaporate  it, 
and  at  the  same  time  cause  thirst;  for  unless  it  exist  and 
induce  drinking,  the  blood  will  not  be  sufficiently  diluted. 

351.  IT  is  EVIDENT  that,  as  the  different  mentory 
organs  are  composed  of  different  substances,  their  ac- 
tion must  excrete  into  and  draw  from  the  blood  different 
substances. 

352.  IT  WOULD  BE  NATURAL  TO  SUPPOSE  that  differ- 
ent and  corresponding  organs  would  be  required  to  elim- 
inate the  different  excretions,  as  well  as  different  organs 
to  supply  the  different  substances  necessary  for  nutrition, 
warming,  cooling,  etc. 

353.  DIFFERENT  CORRESPONDING  ORGANS  DO  EXIST, 
at  least  to  a  certain  extent,  for  eliminating  the  substances 
excreted  by  the  action  of  the  mentory  organs. 

354.  THE  KIDNEYS  HAVE  BEEN  CONSTRUCTED  with 
reference  to  eliminating  from  the  Blood  the  substances 


Why  should   thirst  not  exist  when  the  Body  is  too  cool  ?     850.   How  —  1 
851.  What  —  ?    352.  What  —  ?    353.  Do  —  ?    854.  How  —  ? 


98  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

• 


excreted  into  it  by  the  action  of  the  branial  and  nervous 
organs. 

355.  THE  INTESTINAL  CANAL  AND  SOME  OF  ITS  AP- 
PENDAGES HAVE  BEEN  CONSTRUCTED  with  reference  to  the 
elimination  from  the  Blood  of  substances  excreted  into 
it  by  the  action  of  the  muscles. 

356.  THE  LUNGS  HAVE  BEEN  CONSTRUCTED  with  ref- 
erence to  eliminating  from  the  Blood  useless  substances 
arising  from  the  production  of  heat. 

357.  THE    PERSPIRATORY    GLANDS    OF   THE    SKIN 
HAVE  BEEN  CONSTRUCTED  with  reference  to  removing 
water  from  the  Blood  when  it  is  too  warm.     (When  too 
cool,  the  water  is  removed  by  the  kidneys.) 

358.  THE  WHOLE  SIMPLE  PLAN  BY  WHICH  EXCRE- 
TION, NUTRITION,  WARMING,  AND  COOLING,  ARE  PRO- 
DUCED, is  to  have  the  single  compound  fluid,  Blood,  cir- 
culate from  a  Heart  outward,  through  arteries,  into  and 
through  capillaries,  and  return  through  veins — a  cluster 
of  organs  by  which  it  can  be  modified,  purified,  supplied 
with  all  needed  substances,  and  cooled,  being  attached 
to  some  convenient  part  of  the  circuit,  so  that  during 

FIG.  89. 


Fig.  89  is  a  plan  like  Fig.  87,  except  that  O  represents  an  attached  or- 
gan either  for  supplying  to,  or  eliminating  from,  the  Blood  received 
through  a  branch  of  a.  At  each  circulation  some  of  the  blood  will  pass 
through  O,  and  if  it  should  be  multiplied  the  game  would  be  the  case 
with  all. 

855.  How  —  ?     856.   How—  ?      357.  How  —•     858.  What  is  ~  ?     Describe 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  99 

each  circuit  a  portion  of  the  Blood  passes  through  each 
eliminating  organ  (after  a  sufficient  number  of  circuits, 
all  the  blood  will  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  each 
organ),  while  the  blood  also  receives,  during  some  or  all 
of  its  circuits,  its  needed  supplies. 

359.  THE  SIMPLE  PLAN  is  MODIFIED  in  different  ani- 
mals and  in  man  to  meet  the  minor  exigencies  of  the 
case,  but  the  general  idea  is  the  same  wherever  there  is 
a  circulation. 

360.  THE  ORGA*N  BY  WHICH  COOLING  TAKES  PLACE 
CANNOT  BE  PAET  OF  A  CLUSTER,  as  an  extensive  surface 
exposed  to  the  air  is  essential  to  rapid  evaporation,  and 
this  is  found  only  in  the  skin. 

361.  IT  WILL  BE  EASILY  UNDERSTOOD  that  the  activ- 
ities  of  different  parts  of  the  body  must  produce  very 
different  quantities,  as  well  as  qualities,  of  substances  to 
be  eliminated,  and  will  require  equally  different  quanti- 
ties of  supplies. 

362.  IT  WILL  BE  AS  READILY  INFERRED,  that  if  more 
substance  is  to  be  thrown  off  or  received  through  one 
organ  than  through  another,  there  must  be  larger  blood- 
tubes,  or  more  of  them,  leading  to  the  organs  having 
most  to  do,  and  the  number  or  size  may  be  increased 
until  all  the  Blood  of  the  circuit  shall  be  included. 

363.  CASES  EXIST  IN  THE  HUMAN  BODY  in  which 
the  organs  of  supply  or  elimination  require  blood-tubes 
of  all  sizes,  from  the  diameter  of  a  pin  up  to  that  of  the 
entire  circuit. 

364.  WHETHER  THE  BLOOD  AT  EVERY  CIRCUIT  MUST 
BE  SENT  THROUGH  AN  ORGAN,  WILL  DEPEND  UPON,  1st, 
how  fast  the  substance  to  be  eliminated  accumulates, 
and  how  long  it  can  remain  with  safety  in  the  blood ; 
and,  2d,  how  large  a  supply  the  Blood  can  receive  at 
each  circuit,  and  how  rapidly  it  is  used. 

365.  THE  CIRCUMSTANCES  HITHERTO  MENTIONED  do 


359.  How  is  —  ?    860.  Why  —  ?    361.  What  —  ?    362.  What  —  ?    363.  What  —  ? 
364.  —  what  ?    865.  What  said  of  —  ? 


100  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

not  vary  the  simple  plan  of  the  Blood-circuit ;  it  may 
also  be  mentioned  that  the  eliminating  or  supplying  or- 
gans may  be  attached  to  either  the  arteries  or  veins,  or 
a  part  of  them  to  each,  without  essentially  varying  the 
simple  plan. 

366.  IF  THE  FORCES  THAT  MOVE  THE  BLOOD  THROUGH 
A  SINGLE    CIRCUIT    DO    NOT    SUFFICE    tO   mOVC   it   thl'OUgh 

an  eliminating  organ  with  sufficient  rapidity,  another 
Heart  must  be  introduced,  and  the  veins  which  lead  the 
Blood  back  must  open  into  that  H'eart,  from  which  an- 
other set  of  arteries  must  arise  and  lead  to  a  set  of 
capillaries  in  the  eliminating  organ,  from  which  veins 
must  lead  to  the  first  heart,  as  follows  : 

2d,         1st,  1st, 

2d  ^       Veins,   HEART,   ARTERIES,  1st  f 

Capillaries,   *  CAPILLARIES, 

i< — «<  <     (K                     I 

Arteries,  Heart,   VEINS,                   y 

2d,  2d,         1st, 

367.  THE  TWO  HEARTS  AND  THEIR  CONNECTIONS  ARE 
SPOKEN  OF  as  forming  a  double  circulation,  called  the 
greater  or  systemic,  and  the  lesser  respiratory  or  pulmo- 
nary circulation,  when  in  fact  all  the  parts  constitute 
but  a  single  circulation,  and  the  greater  should  be  called 
the  greater  part  of  the  circulation,  and  the  smaller  the 
smaller  part,  etc.     It  is  no  longer  a  simple  but  a  com- 
pound circulation. 

368.  THE  TWO  HEARTS  SHOULD  BE  LOCATED  by  the 
side  of  each  other,  and  enclosed  within  the  same  external 
covering;  therefore  externally  they  appear  to  be  one 
thing,  and  are,  in  fact,  so  called,  viz.,  the  Heart.     For 
the  purpose  of  close  packing,  the  tubes  or  vessels  leading 
into  and  out  of  them  are  so  intertwined  that  great  com- 
plexity at  first  appears,  where,  in  fact,  there  is  great 
simplicity.    (See  pi.  5  and  27.) 

866.  What  —  ?    Write  and  describe  table.    867.  How  —  ?    868.   How—? 
tbere  complexity  or  simplicity  in  arrangement  of  Blood-tubes  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OP   APPARATUS. 

FIG.  90. 


101 


Fig.  90,  plan  of  compound  cir- 
culation ;  1,  2,  two  Hearts,  enclosed 
in  one  membrane,  so  that  external- 
ly they  appear  as  a  unit ;  a,  arteries 
leading  out  of  1  and  branching  up- 
ward and  downward,  and  leading 
into  c,  capillaries,  through  which 
their  contents  can  pass  into  v,  veins 
that  open  into  2,  from  which  a"  lead 
into  c",  capillaries,  through  which 
their  contents  can  pass  into  v", 
opening  into  1.  Thus  a  compound 
circuit  is  formed,  so  that  when  the 
Hearts  alternately  contract  and  re- 
lax, they  can  pour  their  contents 
through  the  entire  course.  The 
whole  of  the  Blood  in  this  case 
passes  through  the  eliminating  or- 
gans, R,  respiratory,  also  marked 
lungs. 

A  cluster  of  organs  is  represent- 
ed by  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  of  which  those 
marked  d  are  digestory,  m,  the 
spleen,  modificatory,  and  e,  the  kid- 
neys, eliminatory.  These  receive 
at  each  circulation  a  part  of  the 
Blood  thrown  out  by  1  downward, 
and,  after  an  uncertain  number  of 
circulations,  each  of  them  must 
have  the  opportunity  of  acting  up- 
on all  the  Blood,  if  it  awaits  their 
action.  It  is  also  noticeable  that 
the  Blood  circulating  through  4,  5, 
6,  7,  circulates  through  8  before  it 
passes  into  the  veins. 

1  is  called  the  Left,  Back,  and 
Systemic  Heart — its  initials,  S  H; 
a  c  and  v  are  called  Systemic  Arte- 
ries, Capillaries,  and  Veins,  and 
have  the  respective  initials,  S  A, 
S  C,  S  V;  2  is  called  the  Right 
Front,  Pulmonary,  or  Respiratory 
Heart;  a",  c",  v",  are  called  the 
Pulmonary  or  Respiratory  Arteries,  Capillaries,  and  Veins,  having  the 
initials,  PA,  P  C,  P  V,  or  R  A,  R  C,  R  V. 


Describe  Fig  90.    How  many  arteries  leading  out  from  each  Heart  ? 
many  veins  back  ? 


How 


102 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


369.       IN   MAN  THE  RESULTS  OF  PRODUCING  HEAT  and 

the  like  results  to  be  eliminated  are  so  great  and  so  con- 
stant, that  large  corresponding  eliminating  organs  are 
required  to  receive  all  the  Blood  each  circuit ;  and  an 
additional  Heart  and  vessels,  to  drive  the  Blood  around 
through  those  organs,  will  also  be  required. 


FIG.  92. 


Fig.  91,  thumb 
of  natural  size, 
with  the  skin  and 
nail  transparent, 
to  show  the  com- 
mencing lympha- 
tics, a  little  mag- 
nified; a  portion 
of  the  skin  is  re- 
moved at  a  to 
show  the  larger 
a  branches. 

Fig.  92,  a  view 
of  hand  and  arm, 
dissected  to  show, 
7  to  12,  superficial 
lymphatic  branch- 
es; 13,  two  of  sev- 
eral glands  in  the 
arm-pit;  11,  an- 
other ;  1  to  6,  su- 
perficial veins. 

Fig.  93,  plan 
of  lymphatics  of 
the  whole  Body, 
including  the  di- 
gestory  lacteals 
opening  into  the 
veins  of  the  neck. 


FIG.  91. 


FIG.  93. 


869.  What  are  —  ?    Repeat  the  order  of  parts  through  which  Blood  circulates. 
Describe  Fig.  91.    Fig.  92.    Fig.  93. 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  103 

370.  IN  MAN,  Lymphatics  are  also  required.  They 
are  a  system  of  tubes  and  glands,  commencing  in  every 
organ  except  the  brain  and  nerves,  and  opening  into 
veins.  Why  the  veins  cannot  take  up  all  the  substance 
they  contain  is  not  known.  It  may  be  that  it  requires  a 
peculiar  modification,  and  if  all  the  glands  necessary 
should  be  in  one  mass  it  would  find  no  convenient  place 
in  the  Body,  and  therefore  they  have  been  distributed 
for  convenience  of  packing,  and  their  tubes  have  been 
adapted  to  bring  to  them  substances  adapted  to  their 
action.  They  are  attachments  to  the  veins,  and  gather 
into  them  the  lymph,  modified  by  their  action,  therefore 
the 


B.  CnumAWET  OB*A»= 


SECTION  VI. 

Nervous  Circulatory  Organs. 

371.  IT  is  EASY  TO  CONCEIVE  that  it  will  be  very 
important,  even  essential,  to  have  some  means  of  con- 
trolling the  circulation  of  Blood,  now  quickening,  now 
slackening  it,  both  as  to  the  whole  Body  and  as  to  each 
part  through  which  it  moves. 

372.  THE   CIECULATION  MUST  GO  ON  and  be  reg- 
ulated during  sleep,  as  well  as  during  waking  hours,  and 
must,  therefore,  as  well  as  for  other  reasons,  not  be 
directly  under  the  control  of  the  Mind. 

373.  THERE  is  NO  MEANS  OF  CONTROLLING  THE  CIR- 
CULATION except  by  ganglia  (of  which  the  case  would 
require  many)  and  nerves,  and  these  must  be  indirectly 
connected  with  the  Brain  and  Mind.     (See  PI.  3*.) 

374.  THIS  CLASS  OF  NERVES  is  CALLED  the  Ganglionic 
system,  its  ganglia  being  so  numerous  ;  the  Sympathetic 
system,  since  it  was  supposed  to  weave  together  all  parts 


3TO.  What  required  also— ?    What  said  of  them  ?    Write  table.    371.  What  — ? 
872.  When  —  ?    373.  What  is  said  of  the  —  ?    374.  What  is  —  ? 


104  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

in  sympathetic  action  ;  and  the  Organic  system,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  those  nervous  parts  directly  under  the 
influence  of  the  mind,  which  are  called  the  Nervous  sys- 
tem of  Animal  life. 

375.  IT  is  ALSO  THOUGHT  that  this  same  system  su- 
perintends the  activities  of  all  the  organs  of  the  Blood- 
making  class. 

376.  IN  THIS  WORK,  THE  CONTROLLING  GANGLIA  AND 

NERVES  WILL  BE  CALLED  the  N.  (nervous)  Circulatory  Or- 
gans, as  being  concerned  and  having  their  chief  duty  to 
regulate  the  circulation  of  blood,  and  will  in  the  tables 
be  placed  next  to  the  Mental  Organs,  as  being  connected 
with  them,  and  the  connecting  link  between  them  and 
the  Sanguificatory  Organs. 

N.  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS 


SECTION  VII. 

Respiratory  Organs. 

377.  THE  ANCIENTS  FABLED  that  there  were  three  su- 
preme gods,  the  trinity  of  Pluto,  Neptune,  and  Jupiter, 
and  their  dwelling-places  were  respectively  the  earth, 
the  sea,  and  the  air,  over  which  they  presided,  Jupiter 
being  the  most  powerful  and  the  supreme.  Thus  did 
they  represent  the  solid,  fluid,  and  gaseous  elements  of 
nature,  and  their  relative  importance.  And,  as  nature 
exhibits  herself  under  the  three  forms  of  matter,  so  does 
the  body  in  this  respect  represent  nature,  the  blood  being 
composed  of  the  three  forms  ;  so  do  we  also  add  to  the 
blood,  matter  under  the  three  forms  of  food,  drink,  and 
air,  while  also  the  eliminations  take  place  in  the  same 
three  forms  :  here  also  Jupiter  is  supreme,  for  the  de- 
mands for  air  are  more  imperative  than  those  for  water 
or  food.  The  last  can  be  "  stocked  "  in  the  blood  in  ad- 


375.  What— ?    876.  What— ?    Write  table.    Write  both  circulatory  tables  to- 
gether ;  se8  par.  870.    877.  What  did  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS.  105 

vance  of  need — so  can  the  water,  to  a  more  limited  extent; 
but  air  can  only  be  stored  for  a  moment's  time,  and  with 
each  returning  circuit  of  the  blood  the  life-giving  influ- 
ences of  the  air  must  be  breathed  upon  it,  and  its  poison- 
ous burden  drawn  out,  or  the  pulse  fails  to  perform  its 
now  useless  task,  and  animation  will  be  suspended. 

378.  THE  RESULTS  OF  PRODUCING  HEAT  and  the  like 
results,  which  are  so  great  in  quantity  as  to  require  that 
all  the  Blood  at  each  circuit  should  be  sent  through  an 
organ  adapted  to  eliminate   them,  are  gases  dissolved 
in  the   Blood,  or  substances   that  very  easily  become 
gases  by  contact  with  pure  air,  and  by  its  influence  are 
in  either  case  easily  withdrawn  from  the  blood;  therefore, 

379.  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS  ARE  REQUIRED,  in 
order  that  the  Blood  and  Air  may  be  freely  and  rapidly 
brought  within  influence  of  each  other. 

380.  TWO    THINGS  ARE    THEREFORE  TO  BE  PROVIDED 

FOR  :  one,  the  mode  of  bringing  the  Blood  to  the  Air, 
and  the  other,  the  mode  of  bringing  the  Air  to  the  Blood. 

381.  THE  METHOD  OF  BRINGING  THE  BLOOD  TO  THE 
AIR  has  been  described  in  a  previous  section.     A  Heart 
exists,  ready  to  pour  its  contents   into   arterial   tubes 
leading  to  a  network  of  capillaries,  through  the  sides  of 
which  air,  if  present,  can  act  upon  and  be  acted  upon  by 
the  Blood,  when  it  is  ready  to  return  to  the  other  Heart, 
and  be  sent  on  its  way. 

382.  IT  ONLY  REMAINS  TO   DEVISE   some   way   by 
which  Air  shall  be  brought  to  act  freely  through  the 
sides  of  the  capillaries. 

383.  IF  A  SMALL  SAC    OR   CELL  BE  CONSTRUCTED  with 

exceedingly  delicate  sides,  composed  in  part  of  the  net- 
work of  capillaries,  with  a  tube  through  which  Air  can 
be  drawn  into  the  cell,  the  material  of  which  has  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  elasticity,  it  will  be  complete,  and  a  mi- 
nute lung  will  be  formed. 


378.  What  form  have  —  ?    379.  Why  —  ?    380.  What  —  ?     381.  What  is  — 
2.  What-?    383.  What— ? 
5* 


106 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


384.  A  LUNG  is  an  exceedingly  simple  organ  in  its 
ideal  or  plan  state. 

385.  A  EEAL  LUNG  is  merely  an  aggregate  of  cells 
such  as  just  described,  the  whole  being  covered  in  by  a 
skin  or  membrane,  called  Pleura. 

FIG.  94, 

Fig.  94,  plan  of  a  very  high- 
ly magnified  cluster  of  air-cells, 
c,  into  which  a  allows  the  air 
to  enter. 

Fig.  95  represents  the  wind- 
pipe dividing  into  two  branch- 
es, each  of  which  subdivides  in 
its  corresponding  lung,  much 
I  more  minutely  than  represent- 
ed, and  opens  into  clusters  of 
1  cells,  like  Fig.  94.    1,  2,  3,  a 
FIG.  95.    continuous  membrane,  forming 
surface  of  lungs. 


884.  What— ?    8S5.  What  is-?    Describe  Fig.  94.    Fig.  95.    Can  the  enlarge- 
ment 5  be  felt?    What  its  usual  name  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  107 

386.  THE  NUMBER  OF  CELLS  and  the  size  of  them 
will  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  Lungs  and  the 
individual,  and  the  amount  of  air  that  will  act  in  a 
given  time  upon  the  blood  will  vary  accordingly. 

387.  THE  CELLS  ARE  COLLECTED,  like  the  leaves  on 
a  tree,  into  clusters  called  lobules,  and  the  lobules  into 
clusters  called  lobes,  and  these  again  into  the  right  and 
left  (halves  of)  lung ;  the  tubes  from  the  cells,  lobules, 
lobes,  and  lungs  unite  to  form  the  trachea,  as  the  trunk 
of  a  tree  is  formed  by  the  uniting  of  the  branches. 

388.  THE   MODE   OF   FILLING  AND   EMPTYING    THE 
CELLS  is  as  simple  as  their  structure. 

389.  IF  AN  ELASTIC  BAG  WITH  AN  OPEN  MOUTH  HAVE 
THE  PRESSURE  OF  THE  AIR  REMOVED  FROM  ITS  EXTERNAL 

SURFACE,  the  pressure  of  the  air  through  the  mouth  will 
distend  the  bag ;  if  then  the  external  pressure  is  allowed 
to  act  again,  it  will  balance  the  internal  pressure,  and 
the  elasticity  of  the  bag  will  throw  out  the  air. 

390.  SUPPOSITION :     Let  15  =  External  pressure. 

"   15  =r  Internal  pressure. 
"   10  =  Elasticity. 

391.  WHEN  EXTERNAL  PRESSURE,  15,  AND  ELASTIC- 
ITY, 10,  ACT  TOGETHER,  25,  they  overcome  Internal  pres- 
sure, 15,  and  expel  the  air;  take  away  External  pressure, 
15,  and  Elasticity,  10,  is  overcome  by  Internal  pressure, 
15,  and  the  lung  is  distended. 

392.  To  CAUSE  BREATHING,  viz.,  the  passing  of  air 
into  the  cells  and  out  again,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
contrive  some  means  to  remove  the  pressure  of  the  air 
from  and  return  it  against  the  external  surface  of  the 
lungs,  which  is  the  easiest  thing  in  the  world  to  do. 

393.  PLACE  THE  LUNG  in  an  air-tight  box,  with  the 
pipe  that  connects  with  the  air-cells  extending  through 
and  closely  fitting  an  opening  in  the  side  of  the  box ;  this 
must  also  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  readily  enlarged  in 
all  directions  and  again  returned  to  its  previous  size. 

886.  What  said  of  —  ?    38T.  How  —  ?   388.  What  —  ?    889.  What  —  ?    890.  What 
Is  —  ?    891.  What  is  said  —  ?    892.  What  necessary  —  ?    393.  How  —  ? 


108 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


394.  WHEN  THE  BOX  is  ENLARGED  the  pressure  of  the 
air,  15,  is  removed  from  the  external  surface  of  the  Lung, 
and  the  internal  pressure  of  the  air,  15,  correspondingly 
distends  the  Lung,  overcoming  its  elasticity,  10;  and 
when  the  box  is  being  restored  to  its  former  size  the 
external,  15,  balancing  the  internal,  15,  the  elasticity,  10, 
of  the  Lung  as  surely  drives  out  the  air,  and  the  inner 
surface  of  the  box  and  the  outer  surface  of  the  Lung  will 
be  in  the  gentlest  contact  with  each  other  all  the  while 
that  the  box  is  enlarging  and  diminishing,  and  only  by 
closing  the  pipe  leading  into  the  Lung  can  the  box  be 
made  to  press  upon  the  Lung. 

395.  EACH  CHEST  is  such  a  box,  most  readily  en- 
larged and  diminished  by  means  of  the  muscles  and  car- 

FIG.  96. 

Fig.  9G 
represents 
the  Hearts, 
3,  4,  be- 
tween the 
lungs,  dis- 
tended as  in 
life  with  the 
front  parts 
cut  away,  to 
show  the  di- 
visions of 
veins,  arte- 
ries,and  12, 
the  wind- 
pipe ;  6,sys- 
teinic  arte- 
ry; 7,  sys- 
ic  vein  ; 
,  2,  right 
and  left  au- 
ricles. 


394.  What  effect  —  ?    895.  What  —  ?      Describe  Fig.  96.     Is  the  Heart  in  the 
centre  of  the  chest  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS. 
FlG.  97. 


109 


Fig.  97  repre- 
sents the  spinal 
column,  the  back 
parts  of  the  ribs, 
the  oesophagus, 
and  the  aorta  dis- 
sected away,  ex- 
posing 1,  2,  8,  9, 
the  Lungs,  as  they 
would  appear  in 
life  and  full  of  air, 
filling  their  boxes, 
formed  by  4,  7, 11, 
14.  6,  12,  the  Di 
aphragm ;  20,  the 
Heart;  19,  Divis- 
ion of  Windpipe; 
17,  opening  into 
it;  18,  Tongue. 
6, 13,  arches  of  the 
Diaphragm. 


Fig.  98  rep- 
resents breast 
bone  and  fropt 
part  of  ribs, 
dissectedaway 
showing  the 
Lungs,  1,  2,  3, 
8,  9,  10,  filled  \. 
with  air,  as  in .' 
life.  15,  posi-  (! 
tion  of  lower, 
point  of  Heart, 
7,  7,  lining  of 
Chest,  corres- 
ponding to  7, 
7,  Fig.  '97  ;  1, 
2,  3,  the  three 
lobes  of  one 
side;  8,9,  the 
two  lobes  of 
the  other. 


Describe  Fisrs.  97  and  98.     How  near  to  the  neck  do  the  lungs  appear  to  be? 
Does  the  windpipe  enter  top  or  side  of  lungs  ?    What  keeps  them  up? 


110  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

tilages  that  compose  so  large  a  portion  of  its  walls,  to- 
gether with  other  muscles  that  assist  them,  and  no  posi- 
tion in  which  the  Body  can  be  placed  will  cause  pressure 
on  the  lungs,  except  the  windpipe  be  closed. 

396.     THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS  INCLUDE  as  follows : 

RESPIRATORY  ORGANS  =  \  (^Pharynx),  Windpipe,  Lungs,  Trunk- 
/      walls,  and  Diaphragm  ; 

and  all  that  is  necessary  in  the  respiratory  process  is 
pure  air,  active  Trunk-walls  and  Diaphragm,  well-formed 
Lungs,  and  a  good  circulation  of  Blood  through  them 
— four  distinct  topics. 

'Air. 

Trunk-walls  and 
Diaphragm. 
Lungs. 
Circulation  P.  or  R. 


RESPIRATORY  TOPICS  =  « 


SECTION  VIII. 

Digestory  Organs. 

397.  THE  USES  OF  THE  DIGESTORY  ORGANS  are  to 
supply  the  Blood  with  Water  and  Food,  eliminate  from 
and  modify  the  Blood. 

398.  WATER  ENTERS  THE  BLOOD  and  exists  in  it  as 
water,  constituting  a  very  large  proportion  of  it. 

399.  WATER  REQUIRES  NO  PREPARATION,  and  only 
needs  to  be  swallowed  into  a  pouch,  in  the  sides  of  which 
are  numerous  blood-vessels  to  drink  it  in  and  mingle  it 
with  their  contents.     (See  8,  Fig.  70.) 

400.  FOOD  IS  VERY  DIFFERENT  FROM    AlR   AND  WA- 
TER in  this  respect,  that  these  if  pure  are  always  the 
same,  and  should  vary  at  different  times  only  in  quantity, 
while  Food  at  different  times  must  not  only  vary  in  quan- 
tity, but  in  character  very  essentially. 

401.  IT  is   EVIDENT  that  the   different   organs  of 
the  body  require  that  the  Blood  should  be  supplied  with 


896.  What  do  —  •   What  are  Respiratory  topics?    897.  What  are  —  T    898.  How 
does  -  ?    899.  Why  does  -  ?    400.  How  is  —  ?     401.  What  —  t 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  Ill 

different  kinds  of  nutrition :  it  must  also  be  supplied 
with  material  for  warming  and  cooling  itself. 

402.  AT    LEAST    THREE    DIFFERENT   KINDS    OF  FOOD 

must  be  largely  supplied:  for  nourishing  the  nervous 
organs,  for  nourishing  the  muscular  organs,  and  for  fuel 
(the  calorific  kind)  while  cooling,  and  smaller  quantities 
of  other  substances  will  be  constantly  or  at  times  wanted. 

403.  FOOD  DIFFERS  FROM  AlR   AND  WATER   IN   THIS 

ALSO  :  that  they  are  found  in  nature  and  need  no  prepa- 
ration, while  food  is  obtained  by  labor,  needs  much  pre- 
paration, and  must  be  separated  from  useless  or  waste 
substances  incorporated  with  it. 

404.  FOOD  MAY  BE  ARRANGED  in  four  classes :  Nutri- 
tion, which  is  of  two  very  conspicuous   varieties,  the 
nervous  and  muscular,  and  several  less  conspicuous  vari- 
eties;  Calorific,  which  includes  much,  the  larger  part  of 
food;    Cooling  and  Waste,  that   include  unmasticated 
seeds  and  indigestible  harmful  substances  that  should 
never  be  eaten,  and  the  fibrous  woody  parts  of  vegetables 
and  fruits,  that  are  useful  especially  in  spring  and  sum- 
mer. 

f  Nutritive. 

FOOD=  J  Calorific. 

I  Cooling. 
L  Waste. 

405.  (THE  BODY  HAS  BEEN  CONSTITUTED  for  activity, 
and  is  kept  in  the  best  health  when  it  is  properly  active. 
As  it  was  not  anticipated  that  man  would  find  his  food 
separated  from  waste,  he  has  been  constituted  to  sepa- 
rate the  useful  from  the  useless  substances  in  his  diges- 
tory  organs ;  hence  it  is  best  that  he  should  do  so.) 

406.  ONE  REASON  THAT  MAN  REQUIRES  DIGESTORY 
ORGANS,  and  one  use  of  them,  is  to  dissolve  out  the  use- 
ful from  the  waste  substance ;  and  as  this  binds  the  use- 
ful with  many  fibres  closely  woven,  in  some  cases  the 
process  will  be  correspondingly  tedious. 


402.  What  —  ?     403.  How  does  —  ?     404.  How  —  ?    Table.     405.  How  —  ? 
406.  What  is  -  ? 


112 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


407.  WHEN  WE   WISH    TO    SEPARATE   SUBSTANCES 
intimately  united,  our  first  operation  is  to  grind  them 
finely,  and  then  dissolve  them  in  some  fluid,  if  possible. 

408.  FOR  THIS  PURPOSE  the  Digestory  Apparatus 
has  been  furnished  with  a  Mouth,  in  which  the  food  can 
be  cut,  chopped,  bruised,  ground,  or,  best  name  of  all, 
chewed,  at  the  same  time  that  the  Salivary  Organs  pour 
into  the  mouth  an  abundance  of  fluid. 

409.  WHEN  SUBSTANCES  THAT  WE  DESIRE  TO  SEPA- 
RATE are  reduced  to  a  comminuted  state  and  mixed  with 
fluid,  we  put  them  into  a  receptacle  where  they  will  be 
kept  warm,  and  from  time  to  time  add  such  fluids  as  will 
favor  the  process  of  solution ;  and  as  the  substances  sepa- 
rate we  remove  them. 

410.  THE  STOMACH  is  a  warm,  distensible  receptacle, 
situated  as  near  the  mouth  as  the  position  of  the  Lungs 
and  Heart  will  permit,  and  on  its  own  account  in  the 
very  position  that  is  best  for  it.     (See  Fig.  70.) 

FIG.  99.      ....  FiS-  "  represents 

a  section  of  the  dis- 
tended Stomach,  and, 
10  to  15,  Duodenal 
portion  of  2d  Stom- 
ach ;  1,  lower  portion 
of  (Esophagus ;  9, 
Pylorus,  that  can 
close  tltat  outlet;  12, 
duct  or  tube  from  the 
pancreas.  The  open- 
ings of  the  Gastric 
Glands  are  too  small 
to  be  shown,  but  they 
are  similar  to  that  of 
10,  Fig.  87,  and  3,  Fig. 
103. 

411.  THE  SIDES  OF  THE  STOMACH  ARE  FURNISHED 
with  small  organs  called  Gastric  Glands,  to  pour  into  the 
Stomach  a  suitable  supply  of  proper  fluid,  by  which  the 
further  solution  and  preparation  of  the  food  is  produced. 


407.  How  do  we  do  —  ?     408.  What  furnished  —  ? 
410.  What  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  99.'   411.  How  — ? 


409.   What  do  with  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS.  113 

412.  THE  WASTE  FOOD  REQUIRES,  of  course,  merely 
a  separation,  when  it  is  at  liberty  to  pass  on  and  leave 
the  body. 

413.  THE  COOLING  FOOD  is  acids,  the  precise  action 
of  which  in  preventing  the  production  of  heat  is  not 
known;  but  they  are  without  doubt  merely  dissolved, 
passed  into  the  blood  as  acids,  and  there  in  some  way 
perform  their  office. 

414.  ONLY  TWO  CLASSES,  the  nutritive  and  the  calo- 
rific, remain  to  be  considered. 

415.  IT  MUST  BE  REMEMBERED  that  the  food  of  ani- 
mals contains  the  substances  required,  not  in  the  condi- 
tion of  chemical  elements,  but  compounded  by  plants 
into,  or  very  nearly  into,  the  precise  substances  needed 
by  the  organs.     The  question  is  not  merely,  does  an  arti- 
cle or  mixture,  such  as  might  be  made  in  any  chemist's 
shop,  contain  the  same  elements  as  the  Brain  or  Mus- 
cles or  Bones,  but  have  they  the  proper  form  for  serving 
as  food,  and  also  can  they  be  readily  dissolved  ? 

416.  IT    IS   THE    OFFICE    OF  THE  PLANT  to  Compound 

that  the  animal  may  decompound.     The  former  synthe- 
tizes  that  the  latter  may  analyze. 

417.  WHEN   ONE   ANIMAL   EATS   ANOTHER,  it   eats 
what  has  before  been  eaten,  and  what  was  a  part  of  a 
plant  at  some  time. 

418.  THE  NUTRITIVE  PART  OF  FOOD  REQUIRES  but 
little  more  than  to  be  dissolved  out  of  the  substances 
with  which  it  is  combined,  and  passed  into  the  circulation. 

{Fat. 
Starch. 
Gum. 
Sugar. 
Gelatin. 

THE    FIVE    VARIETIES    ARE     VERY    SIMILAR    TO     EACH 

OTHER    in  chemical  composition — will  readily  burn  if 
thrown  into  the  fire ;  each,  if  fed  to  a  pig,  will  cause  him 


412.  What  does  —  ?    413.  What  said  of  —  ?    414.  What  —  remain  ?    415.  What 
-  ?    416  What  —  ?    417.  What  said  —  ?   418.  What  does  —  ?    419.  What  said  of  —  ? 


114  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

to  fatten,  and  the  five  will  collectively  be  better  than 
either  separately. 

420.  BY  GELATIN  is  meant  animal,  not  vegetable, 
gelatin.    It  is  merely  to  be  dissolved,  when  it  is  ready  to 
pass  into  the  Blood. 

421.  SUGAR  needs  only  to  be  dissolved,  when  it  is 
ready  to  pass  into  the  Blood,  of  which  it  is  an  element. 

422.  GUM  is  a  kind  of  sugar  (not  spruce  gum  and 
the  like,  which  are  very  unhealthy),  and  very  readily  con- 
verted into  it,  or  it  may  pass  into  the  Blood  by  simply 
being  dissolved. 

423.  STARCH  is  IN  THE  FORM  of  grains,  too  large  to 
pass  into  the  Blood,  and,  if  it  could,  would  obstruct  the 
circulation  in  the  minute  tubes. 

424.  STARCH  MUST  BE  CHANGED  INTO  SUGAR,  and  as 
the  chemist  can  in  various  ways  effect  the  change,  it 
would  not  be  astonishing  if  the  same  could  be  done  in 
the  body. 

425.  IT  WOULD  NOT  BE  LIKELY  that  the  same  fluids 
adapted  to  dissolve  out  the  Waste  substance  and  leave 
the  Nutritive  and  Calorific  food,  would  be  sufficient  to 
change  the  Starch. 

426.  FAT    ALSO,    THOUGH    A   COMPONENT   OP   THE 
BLOOD,  cannot  pass  into  it  till  an  emulsion  has  been 
made  of  it  and  some  other  fluid. 

427.  Two  MORE  FLUIDS  at  least  must  be  supplied 
to  the  digestory  process,  one  on  account  of  Starch,  and 
another  on  account  of  Fat. 

428.  IT  WOULD  BE  ADVISABLE  NOT  to  have  these  sup- 
plied till  the  process  of  solution  and  separation  had  to  a 
degree  taken  place. 

429.  ANOTHER  RECEPTACLE  MUST  BE  ADDED  to  the 
stomach  to  receive  its  contents  when  they  have  passed 
through  the  changes  necessary  there,  and  the  two  fluids 
must  be  at  once  supplied.     (17,  Fig.  100.) 


420.  What  said  of-?  421.  Of-?    422.  Of— ?  428.  Of-?   424.  Of— ?    425.  What 
-?  426.  What  said  of  — ?  427.  Why  supply  —  ?  428.  What  — ?   429.  Why  must-? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS. 


115 


Fig.  100,  a  plan  of  Di- 
gestory  apparatus,  the  head 
being  divided  on  the  mid- 
dle line  and  turned  to  the 
right,  showing  the  mouth, 
1,  extending  back  into  the 
pharynx,  9,  which  contin- 
ues into  3  the  oesophagus, 
represented  open  above,  en- 
tire at  its  centre,  and  open 
again  below,  continuous 
with  the  stomach  distend- 
ed and  the  front  half  re- 
moved. 15,  is  the  pyloric 
orifice  through  which  the 
contents  of  the  Stomach 
pass  into  the  Second  Sto- 
mach, the  upper  or  duode- 
nal part  of  which  is  re- 
presented open ;  17  is  the 
same  entire,  coiled  from 
side  to  side  till  again  open- 
ed at  27,  just  beyond  which 
it  communicates  with  the 
Colon  represented  open 
throughout  its  entire  ex-  ~ 
tent;  23,  duct  from  Pan- 
creas opening  at  16 ;  18, 
Gall-bladder;  19,  its  duct; 
20,  duct  from  liver;  21, the 
trunk  of  both  ducts  open- 
ing at  22  (and  sometimes 
through  the  same  orifice  as 
23  does).  This  cut,  there- 
fore, illustrates  in  one  view 
all  the  organs  of  the  Diges- 
tory  Apparatus  except  the 
glands  of  the  Mouth,  Sto- 
mach and  Second  Stomach. 
The  latter  two  kinds  are 
too  small  to  be  represented 
in  a  cut  of  this  size.  41, 
orifice  leading  to  ear;  11, 
soft  palate;  10,  spinal  ca- 
nal; 5,  windpipe;  8,  lar- 
ynx. 


FIG.  100. 


Describe  Fig.  100.    "What  is  the  position  of  oesophagus  in  relation  to  windpipe 
and  spinal  column  ?    How  many  times  across  does  2d  stomach  pass  ? 


116 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


430.  THIS  RECEPTACLE  MUST  HAVE  a  great  extent  of 
surface  in  order  that  the  substances  may  be  taken  into  the 
Blood  as  rapidly  as  they  are  in  a  proper  condition  for  it. 

431  THE  SECOND  STOMACH  has  been  made  a  part 
of  the  Digestory  Apparatus,  and  to  serve  in  all  the  re- 
spects mentioned. 

432.   TO  THE  UPPER  PART  OF  THE  SECOND  STOMACH 

an  organ  called  Pancreas  has  been  attached,  for  the 
purpose  of  pouring  into  it  a  fluid  called  Pancreatic 
Juice,  necessary  to  make  an  emulsion  with  the  Fat. 

FIG.  101. 

Fig.  101  re- 
presents *  back 
surface  of  Sto- 
mach and  Slow- 
er surface  of 
liver,  turned  up 
to  show  g  Gall- 
bladder and  6, 
5,  4,  the  head, 
body  and  tail  of 
the  Pancreas  in 
section  to  show- 
its  duct  along 
its  centre  open- 
ing into  duode- 
num near  d 
(see  Fig.  100). 


Fig.  102,  6, 
5,  4,  Pancreas 
entire ;  7,  dis- 
tended portion 
of  2d  Stomach 
tied  at  each  end. 


433.       IN   THE    SIDES    OP   THE    SECOND    STOMACH 

been  placed  two  kinds  of  Glands,  called  Brunners  and 


480.  What  —  ?    431.  What  is  —  ?    432.  What  attached  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  101. 
Fig.  102.    433.  What  have  been  placed  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OP   APPARATUS.  117 

Lieberkiihns,   after  their  discoverers,  which    supply   a 
fluid  that  assists  in  changing  the  starch  into  sugar. 

434.  To   STILL  FURTHER  ASSIST  in   the  process   of 
separating  some  of  the  nutritious  substances  and  fitting 
them  to  enter  the  Blood,  the  Second  Stomach  is  furnished 
with  another  very  large  Gland,  the  Liver  and  its  accom- 
panying Gall-bladder,  that  pour  their  fluids,  Bile  and 
Gall,  through  a  small  tube,  into  the  Second  Stomach  near 
the  orifice  of  the  Pancreatic  Duct.     (See  20,  Fig.  100.) 

435.  THUS  THE  SECOND  STOMACH,  or  small  Intes- 
tinal Canal,  is  supplied  with  all  required  fluids,  and  being 
long  and  with  a  curious  arrangement  for  increasing  the 
extent  of  its  inner  surface,  is  admirably  adapted' to  keep 
the  food  warm  and  retain  it  until  it  is  all  dissolved  and 
prepared  to  enter  the  Blood,  or  else,  worthless,  is  only  fit 
to  be  discharged  into  the  Colon. 

Fig.  103  shows  at  1  how  the  FIG.  103. 

inner  surface  of  the  Second  Stom- 
ach is  increased  by  folds,  as  they 
are  called,  of  the  inner  surface  or 
mucous  membrane  of  the  canal. 
4  indicates  the  sinewy  or  fibrous 
structure  which  is  around  the 
tubes,  and  connects  with  the  se- 
rous or  outer  surface,  or  of  the 
canal,  and  also  the  orifices  3,  and 
the  tubes  2  of  the  tubular  or  Lie- 
berkiihns glands. 

436.  THE  COLON  is  NEEDED  as  a  portable  reservoir 
to  receive  the  waste  from  digestion  and  the  substances 
eliminated  from  the  Blood  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
Digestory  Canal  and  its  dependencies. 

437.  Inf. — THE    DIGESTORY  APPARATUS  must  be 
Modificatory  as  well  as  Eliminatory,  since  the  removal 
of  the  various  fluids  mentioned  must  have  an  essential 
influence  in  modifying  the  Blood. 

438.  To  SUM  UP  THE  ORGANS  NEEDED  IN  DIGES- 
TION:— There  are  three  pouches  or  receptacles  for  the 


484.  What  necessary  —  ?     435.  Still  further  describe—.     Describe  Fig.  103. 
486.  Why  —  ?    What  other  office  has  —  ?    438.  —  ? 


118 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


food  :  the  Mouth,  Stomach,  and  Second  Stomach.  There 
are  three  divisions  of  the  Digestory  Canal  above  the 
Stomach :  the  (Esophagus,  Pharynx,  and  Mouth.  There 
are  three  divisions  of  the  canal  below  the  (Esophagus : 
Stomach,  Second  Stomach,  and  Colon.  Six  divisions  of 
the  central  canal.  The  Second  Stomach  is  subdivided 
into  three  divisions:  Duodenum,  Jejunum,  and  Ilium. 
The  Colon  is  subdivided  into  Vermiform,  Appendage, 
Co3cum,  Ascending,  Transverse,  Descending,  Sigmoid 
flexure,  and  Rectum ;  and  along  the  whole  canal  are  sit- 
uated the  organs  called  Glands,  to  form  fluids  from  the 
Blood  and  pour  them  into  the  Canal. 

439.  THE  LACTEALS  ARE  OFTEN  CLASSED,  and  per- 
haps most  properly,  among  the  Blood-tubes,  or  that  part 
of  them  called  Lymphatics;  for  the  Lacteals  are  consti- 
tuted like  the  Lymphatics,  and  perform  similar  duties  in 
a  similar  way;  yet  they  are  usually  reckoned  among  the 
Digestory  Organs.  (See  Fig ) 


FIG.  104. 


Fig.  104  represents 
a  coil  7  of  the  Second 
Stomach  turned  back 
and  other  parts  dis- 
sected away  to  show 
the  lacteals,  6,  glands, 
5,  and  the  main  duct, 
7  1,  which  extends  up 
and  connects  with  the 
veins  in  the  neck,  as 
shown  in  fig.  To  ob- 
serve how  the  lacteals 
commence,  see  17,  16, 
Fig.  87. 


440.  THE  USE  OP  THE  LACTEALS  was  at  one  time 
thought  to  be  to  gather  all  the  digested  food  and  lead  it 
into  the  Blood. 


Divisions  of  Dizestory  canal  ? 
Fig.  104.    440.  What  said  ot  —  i 


Subdivisions—?     439.   How  — ?      Dosc.ribo 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS   OF   APPARATUS. 


119 


441.  IT  is  NOW  ASCERTAINED  that  the  Lacteals  con- 
vey but  a  smaller  part  of  the  digested  material,  cheifly 
one  kind  of  it,  the  fat  made  into  an  emulsion. 

442.  THE  DIGESTORY  ORGANS,  including  Lacteals, 
will  be  as  follows : 


DIGESTORY  ORGANS  - 


Mouth, 

Salivary  Glands, 
Pharynx, 
(Esophagus, 
Stomach, 
Gastric  Glands, 
Second  Stomach, 
Pancreas, 


1st  Subdiv. 
1 2d  Subdiv, 


Liver, 

Gall-bladder, 

Lieberkiihn's  Gl'ds,  , 

Brunner's  Glands,    J-  3d  Subdiv. 

Peyer's  Glands,       J 

Colon, 

Lacteals, 


1st  Div. 


2d  Div. 


3d  Div. 


4th  Div. 
6th  Div. 

443.  NINE  FLUIDS  IN  ALL  ARE  REQUIRED,  produced 
in  as  many  different  kinds  of  organs,  to  dissolve  out  the 
various  useful  substances  from  the  food,  and   prepare 
them  to  enter  the  Blood,  as  follows : 

Saliva  Parotid,  ) 

Saliva  Submaxillary,  -  Stomachic. 
Gastric  Juice, 
Pancreatic  Juice, 

DIGESTORT  FLUIDS     Bile,  •  Pre-Intestinal. 

Gall,  \ 

Lieberkiihn's  Glands  Juice,  ) 

Brunner's  Glands  Juice,  >  Intestinal. 

Mucus,  ) 

444.  Inf. — IT  WOULD  NATURALLY  BE  INFERRED  that 
a  process  requiring  so  many  fluids  must  be  a  very  com- 
plicated one. 

445.  IT  MUST  BE   REMEMBERED  that  all  the  fluids 
are  not  required  for  any  one  element  of  the  food,  but 
that  one  fluid  attacks  one  element,  and  another  fluid 
another ;  thus  the  matter  is  very  much  simplified. 

446.  Inf. — A  PROCESS  REQUIRING  so  MANY  ORGANS 
PERFORMING  so  MANY  ACTIONS,  beyond  the  reach  of  ob- 


441.  What  —  ?    442.  Write  and  describe  table  of  —  ?   443.  What  —  ?    444.  What 
—  !    445.  What  —  ?    446.  What  said  of  —  ? 


120  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

servation,  it  would  seem  must  be  shrouded  in  impene- 
trable mystery. 

447.  IT    EXCITES    THE    HIGHEST    ADMIRATION    AND 
GRATITUDE  to  observe  the  results  of  the  untiring  labors 
that  have  been  bestowed  upon  research  in  this  field,  as- 
sisted by  a  few  fortunate  accidents. 

448.  THE  WONDERFUL  PROCESSES  OF  DIGESTION,  of 
such  immense  practical  value  to  man,  can  now  be  under- 
stood in  all  their  most  important  and  useful  aspects  by 
an  ordinary  person  with  moderate  application.     There 
is  no  occasion  for  the  student  to  feel  discouraged,  as  he 
will  be  well  satisfied  when  the  process  and  organs  are 
treated  upon  in  detail. 

SECTION  IX. 
Eliminatory  Organs. 

449.  THERE  is  A  HARMONY  between  the  constitu- 
tion of  Nature  generally  and  that  of  the  Human  Body, 
that  when  perceived  cannot  fail  to  excite  the  liveliest 
feelings  of  admiration  and  enlist  the  deepest  interest. 
This  harmony  is  especially  recognized  in  the  study  of 
the  relations  of  the  function  of  Elimination. 

450.  THE  LUNGS  are  important  Eliminators  of  Car- 
bon in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid ;  but  when  hot  weather 
rarefies  the  air  and  elevates  its  temperature,  the  action 
of  the  Lungs  is  correspondingly  limited,  for  less  air  en- 
ters them  at  each  breath,  and  it  is  so  nearly  the  tempera- 
ture of  those  organs  that  it  is  but  slightly  expanded  in 
them,  and  does  not  therefore  distend  them  to  the  degree 
most  highly  promoting  the  action  of  the  air  and  blood 
upon  each  other,  and  the  blood  returns  from  the  Lungs 
but  partially  relieved  of  carbon. 

451.  Inf. — IN  HOT  WEATHER,  little  heat  should  be 
produced  in  the  Body,  so  that  a  feeble  action  of  the 
Lungs  is  desirable  at  that  time. 

447.  What  —  ?    448.  What  said  of  —  ?    449.  Where  —  ?    450.  What  are  —  ? 
451.  What  should  be— ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS. 


121 


452.  THE  CARBON  OF  THE  BLOOD  must  at  all  times 
be  removed,  and  some  organ  must  do  it  that  will  not 
produce  heat. 

453.  THE  LIVER  increases  its  activity  in  hot  weather, 
and  draws  from  the  Blood  the  carbon  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  organs,  in  all  of  which  carbon  is  a  con- 
stituent. 

454.  IN    HOT    WEATHER    THE     APPETITE     WILL     NOT 

CRAVE  calorific  food,  in  which  carbon  abounds,  but  will 
crave  fruits,  vegetables,  acids,  waste  food,  etc.,  that  re- 
quire a  large  quantity  of  Bile  and  Gall  for  their  perfect 
digestion,  and  of  course  a  full  degree  of  activity  in  the 
organs  supplying  them. 

FIG.  105.  FIG.  106. 


Fig.  105,  upper  surface  of  Liver:  1,  larger,  2,  smaller  lobe;  3,  front  thin 
edge;  4,  back  thick  part;  10,  vein— -the  upper  surface  is  very  convex; 
12,  gall-bladder. 

Fig.  106,  lower  surface  of  Liver;  1,  right,  2, left  lobe;  3,  middle  lobe; 
12,  vein,  corresponding  to  10,  previous  figure ;  13,  gall-bladder. 


452.  What  said  of  —  ?    453.  What  said  of  —  ?    454.  What  —  I    What  do  vegeta- 
bles, etc.,  require  ?    Describe  Fig.  105.    Fig.  106. 
6 


122  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

455.  Him. — THE  ANIMALS  THAT  NATURALLY  FEED 
UPON  VEGETABLES  (Graminivorous)  have  a  larger  supply 
of  Bile  than  those  that  feed  upon  flesh  (Carnivorous). 

456.  THE  LIVER  RECEIVES  ITS  BLOOD,  from  which 
to  form  Bile,  mostly  from  the  veins  of  the  other  digestory 
organs,  which  require,  receive,  and  supply  more  Blood 
when  vegetable  food  is  used,  than  when  we  use  a  more 
concentrated  diet. 

457.  THE  HARMONIOUS  ACTION  of  the  Lungs,  Liver, 
and  other  Digestory  Organs,  of  the  appetite  and  the 
temperatures  of  the  weather,  is  very  remarkable,  but  be- 
comes  still   more   so   when   the   relation   of   muscular 
action  to  the  action  of  those  organs  is  also  considered. 

458.  THE  MUSCLES  are  very  bulky,  forming  more 
than  half  the  weight  of  the  Body ;  their  activity  is  at- 
tended with  the   production  of  much  heat  and  with 
much  material  for  the  production  of  heat,  and  with  a 
correspondingly  large  demand  for  food  and  the  digestion 
of  it. 

459.  WHEN  THE  MUSCLES  ARE  ACTIVE  the  Diges- 
tory Organs  must  be  correspondingly  active,  and  the 
muscular  waste  that  cannot  or  should  not  be  thrown  off 
by  the  Lungs  can  be  thrown  off  from  the  Blood  by  the 
Digestory  Organs,  which  are  therefore  properly  Elimina- 
tory  Organs,  corresponding  to  the  Muscles. 

460.  THE  HARMONIOUS  ACTION  OF  ALL  THESE  PARTS, 
the  balancing  (so  to  speak)  of  their  actions,  so  that  one 
increases  as  another  diminishes,  or  so  that  several  increase 
or  diminish  their  activities  together,  is  truly  wonderful. 
That  the  action  is  not  accidental  will  be  obvious  when 
the  next  case  is  considered. 

461.  THE   MIND   REQUIRES  THE   ACTIVITY   OF  THE 
BRAIN  as  much  in  hot  weather  as  in  cold  (and,  if  proper 
food  and  other  treatment  are  used,  is  equally  allowable), 
and  its  activity  must  not  have  any  relation  to  the  pro- 


455.  What  have  —  ?   456.  How  does  —  ?   457.  What  said  —  ?   458.  W  hat  said  —  ? 
459.  What  result  —  ?    460.  What  said  —  ?    461.  When  does  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS. 


123 


duction  of  heat,  and  of  course  not  to  the  Lungs  nor  to 
the  Digestory  Organs  as  Eliminatory  Organs. 

462.  THE-  BRAINS  WILL  REQUIRE  especial  Elimina- 
tory  Organs  independent  of  other  activities,  and  devoted 
to  its  one  purpose,  the  activities  of  which  can  be  con- 
trolled solely  with  reference  to  Elimination. 

463.  THE  KIDNEYS  ARE  FURNISHED  for  the  purpose 
of  removing  from  the  Blood  a  part  of  the  substances 
thrown  into  it  by  the  Brain  and  Nerves,  and,  as  Elimi- 
nating Organs,  correspond  to  the  Nervous  system. 

FIG.  107.  FIG.  108. 


Fig.  107,  front  view  of  left  Kidney:  8,  9,  arteries;  10, 11,  12,  veins;  7, 
ureter ;  13,  suprarenal  gland. 

Fig.  108,  section  of  left  Kidney :  1,  suprarenal  capsule  or  gland  ;  2,  out- 
er skin ;  3,  part  which  eliminates  ;  4,  tubes ;  7,  8,  basin  ;  9,  ureter. 

464.  THE  LARGE  BRANCHES  OF  THE  ARTERIES  LEAD- 
ING TO  THE  KIDNEYS  indicate  the  importance  of  their 
office,  more  Blood  being  supplied  to  them,  in  proportion 
to  their  size,  than  to  any  other  parts  except  the  Brains 
and  Lungs,  the  latter  receiving  all  of  it,  as  stated. 

465.  THE  KIDNEYS  MAY  HAVE  AN  ADDITIONAL  OF- 
FICE of  Eliminating  a  part  of  the  material  thrown  into 
the  Blood  by  the  Bones. 


462.  What  —  ?    468.  For  what  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  107.    Fig.  109.    464.  What  do 
—  ?    465.  What— ? 


124 


GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 


466.  THE  KIDNEYS  MAY  ALSO  SERVE  the  purpose  of 
Eliminating  Water  when  removed  for  the  purpose  of 
diminishing  the  volume  of  "the  circulating  fluid,  especially 
as  the  earthy  substances  Eliminated  by  them  will  require 
a  considerable  quantity  of  fluid  to  float  them  away. 

467.  WHEN  WATER  is  ELIMINATED  FOR  THE  PUR- 
POSE OF  COOLING  THE  BODY  it  must  be  exposed  to  evapo- 
rate from  an  extensive  surface,  such  as  is  afforded  only 
by  the  Skin ;  so  that  the  proper  organs  must  be  located 
in  the  Skin,  where  the  perspiratory  glands  are  placed. 

FIG.  109. 

Fig.  109  represents  a  rery  highly  mag- 
nified view  of  a  perpendicular  section  of 
a  small  portion  of  the  Skin.  It  is  divided 

M  into  three  parts  :  1,  the  external  layer  or 
cuticle,  composed  of  cells  starting  up  from 
the  basement  membrane  below,  and  grad- 

i&  ually  becoming  dry  and  flattened  scales 
as  layer  after  layer  they  approach  the  sur- 
face, from  which  they  are  worn  or  drop 
off.  Two  curved  passages,  the  outlets  of 
the  perspiration,  are  noticeable,  commu- 
nicating below  with  four  tubes  in  one  case, 
and  two  in  the  other,  that  are  coiled  at 

r   their  lower  extremities,  and  form  the  per- 

\g  spiratory  glands,  g.  2  is  the  papillary 
portion  in  which  the  nerves  of  touch  com- 

\a  mence,  surrounded  by  a  network  of  lym- 
phatics and  capillaries,  supplied  through 
a,  an  arterial  branch.  3  is  the  true  skin 
composed  of  sinewy  fibres  woven  around 
the  tubes,  nerves,  and  perspiratory  glands. 
In  the  lower  part  the  meshes  are  larger, 
and  filled  sometimes  with  clusters  of  fat- 
cells,  as  at  e. 


468.  ANY  VISCID  SUBSTANCES  that  may  not  with 
propriety  be  Eliminated  by  the  Kidneys,  the  Digestory 
Canal,  nor  by  its  appendages,  nor  by  the  Lungs,  may 
be  thrown  out  upon  the  surface  of  the  Skin. 


466.  What  —  ?     4C7.  What  arrangement  necessary  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  109. 
468.  How  eliminate  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS.       125 

469.  THE  TRUE  ELIMINATING  ORGANS  ARE  the  Kid- 
neys and  the  Perspiratory  Glands  ;  the  Digestory  Canal 
(and  its  appendages,  the  Liver  particularly),  Liver,  and 
Lungs,  Eliminating  in  common  with  other  functions. 

470.  THE    ELIMINATIONS    may  be   correspondingly 
classed  :  Renal  (of  the  Kidneys),  Perspiration,  Intestinal, 
Hepatic  (of  the  Liver),  Pulmonary  (of  the  Lung). 


(  Lungs. 

f  Renal. 

Perspiration. 
ELIMINATIONS.       \  Intestinal. 

Hepatic,  or  Biliary. 
^Pulmonary. 


SECTION  X. 

Modificatory  Organs. 

471.  EVERY  ORGAN  OF  THE  BODY  THUS  FAR  CONSID- 
ERED, it  is  evident,  is  constantly  modifying  the  Blood  by 
what  it  takes  from  or  adds  to  it. 

472.  IT     WOULD     NATURALLY     BE    SUPPOSED    that    SO 

many  substances  thrown  into  the  current  of  the  Blood, 
by  the  Lungs  from  the  Air,  by  the  Digestory  Canal  from 
the  Food,  and  by  the  action  of  all  the  organs  of  the 
Body,  together  with  what  would  be  left  by  the  organs 
forming  fluids  for  various  purposes,  would  require  some 
modifying  influences,  to  combine  and  assort  the  whole  in 
such  a  way  as  to  render  it  most  serviceable,  or  to  facili- 
tate its  exit  from  the  Body. 

473.  WHAT  COULD  BE  BETTER  ADAPTED  to  the  pur- 
pose of  modifying  the  Blood  than  to  have  an  immense 
number  of  organs,  if  they  may  be  so  called^  so  small  that 
they  could  circulate  everywhere  with  and  in  the  Blood  ? 

469.  What  —  ?    470.  How  class  —  ?  Write  and  describe  table  of  —  ?    471.  What 
evident  —  ?    472.  What  —  ? 


126 


GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 


474.  THE  BLOOD-CELLS,  little  sacs  so  small  that  nearly 
three  thousand  of  thenfare  found  in  every  drop  of  Blood, 
and  yet  composing  not  more  than  one  half  of  it,  are  one 
of  the  abundant  means  by  which  the  Blood  is  modified. 

FIG.  110. 

Fig.  110  :  1,  2,  3,  a  number  of  Blood-cells, 
very  much  magnified.  Their  shape  in  va- 
rious positions  is  very  well  shown.  They 
are  prone  to  adhere,  as  at  3.  4,  5,  G,  7  are 
the  same,  still  more  highly  magnified  to  show 
the  convex,  5,  and  concave  surface,  7,  in  sec- 
tion,  that  the  same  cell  will  exhibit  at  difler- 
ent  times.  Their  semi-transparent  character 
is  shown  at  6. 

475.  THE  BLOOD-CELLS  AS  THEY  FLOAT  IN  THE  BLOOD 
constantly  take  from  it  substances  that  they  yield  back 
to  it  in  a  changed  and  improved  condition. 

476.  THE  BLOOD-CELLS  ARE  NOT  SUFFICIENT,  though 
so  numerous,  to  accomplish  all  the  modifying  required 
for  the  Blood,  nor  could  they  be  more  numerous  in  it 
without  obstructing  its  flow. 

477.  LARGE  NUMBERS  OF  CELLS  must  be  accumu- 
lated, forming,  with  the  other  necessary  parts  of  a  struc- 
ture, different  organs,  conveniently  located. 

478.  THE  LYMPHATIC  GLANDS  are  small  organs,  sit- 
uated in  great  numbers  in  the  course  of  the  Lymphatic 
tubes,  and  chiefly  composed  of  cells  that  modify  the 
fluid  that  passes  through  them,  and  are  also  thought  to 
be  the  producers  of  the  cells  that  float  in  the  Blood. 

FIG.  111. 

Fig.  Ill,  a  section  of 
,  Lymphatic  gland,  iuto 
;==  which  the  vessels,  a,  a, 
'and  from  which  the  ves- 
sels, b,  b,  lead.  An  im- 
mense number  of  cells 
line  the  passages  through 
the  gland  from  a  to  b. 


474.  What  are  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  110.    475.  What  is  the  effect  of  -  ?    476.  For 
what  — ?    477.  How  treat  —  ?    478.  What  are  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  111. 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   APPARATUS 


127 


479.  THE  SPLEEN  is  a  large  organ,  chiefly  composed 
of  cells,  and  as  the  Blood  circulates  among  them  its  con- 
tents are  modified  by  the  cells,  and  returned  again  to 
the  Blood. 

FIG.  112.  FIG.  113. 


Fig.  112  represents  concave  surface  of  Spleen,  with  which  the  stomach 
is  in  contact ;  6,  branches  of  Arteries  ;  7,  Vein. 

Fig.  113:  6  represents  the  Thyroid  Gland,  like  a  saddle  across  the 
windpipe,  7,  just  below  the  Larynx.  It  is  named  from  the  Thyroid  Car- 
tilage, 3. 

480.  THE  THYROID  AND  THYMUS  GLANDS  are  simi- 
larly constructed  organs,  that,  like  the  others  that  have 
no  other  inlet  or  outlet  except   the   Blood-tubes,  must 
be  modifying  organs,  though  in  what  peculiar  way  they 
modify  the  Blood  is  not  known. 

481.  THE  SUPRA-RENAL  BODIES  are  small  parts  found 
at  the  summits  of  the  Kidneys,  the  use  of  which  has 
been  supposed  to  be  modificatory  by  some  and  nervous 
by  others.  As  they  have  no  outlet  nor  inlet,  except  blood- 
tubes  and  nerves,  we  will  class  them  as  modificatory. 


4T9.  What— ?    Describe  Pig.  112.     4SO  What  is  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  113.    Can 
the  Thyroid  Gland  bo  felt?    481.  What  are  —  ? 


128  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

482.  Ix  ONE  SENSE  IT  is  NOT  PKOPEK  to  form  an 
Apparatus,  by  classing  the  Modifying  Organs  together, 
as  they  do  not  act  connectedly  to  gain  a  single  result  ; 
yet  in  another  sense  they  may  be  said  to  be  Corking  to- 
gether toward  a  common  result.  The  same  remark  may 
be  made  of  the  Eliminatory  Organs. 


Spleen. 
Blood-cells. 


Thymus  Gland. 
Supra-renal  Glands. 


CONCLUSION  OF  CHAPTER  V. 

484.  THUS  HAVE  ALL  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  BODY 
BEEN  NOTICED  and  included  under  appropriate  heads.  It 
will  be  well  to  present  them  all  at  one  view,  arranged  in 
connection  as  Apparatus,  and  clustered  as  belonging  to 
their  respective  centres,  as  follows : 

MENTORY  ORGANS. 

»•  Organs  f  Ears  +  * 

Ganglia  +  Six  kinds  of  Sensatory  Nerves  +    of     •{  -, 

2      •*  Sor,^        EyeS  + 


Ganglia 


Mouths  + 
Ganglia 


Ganglia  -|-  Motory  Nerves 


Noses 


Skins 


Muscles  + 


CIRCULATORY  ORGANS.  W 

Ganglia  +  Nerves,  (Sympathetic)  -f- 
Hearts  +  Blood-tubes,  (Arteries,  Veins,  Capillaries,  Lymphatics)  +    j 

SANGUIFICATORY  ORGANS. 

(Nose  +  Pharynx)  +  Larynx •+- Trachea  +  Lungs + (Diaphragm + T-w)  +  H 
( (Mouth),  Salivary-gl.  -f- (Pharynx) + (Esophagus -f- Stomach, + Gastric- 
*!      gl.,  2d  Stomach,  (Duodenum,  Jejunum,  Illium)  +  Pancreas  +  Liver, 
[     Gall-bl.+Brunner's,  Lieberkiihn's,  Pey's  gl.+ Colon -f-Lacteals.+W 
Kidneys+Perspiratory  gl.  +  Hair  and  Sebaceous  gl.-f- 
Spleen  +  Blood-cells  +  Thyroid,   Thymus,   Supra-renal,   and    Lym- 
phatic gl.  +  02 


4S2.  What  —  ?    483.  Write  and  explain  table  of  — .    484.  What  has  been  done  ? 
Write  and  describe  table  of  Mentory  Organs.    Circulatory.    Sanguificatory. 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    APPARATUS.  129 

485.  IT  is  NOT  SUPPOSED  OR  PRETENDED  that  the 
precise  or  the  entire  use  or  mode  of  action  has  been 
assigned  to  each  organ,  but  a  correct  bird's-eye  view  has 
been  taken  of  the  whole  field,  and  the  ground  has  been 
laid  out  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  readily  and  comprehen- 
sively studied  in  detail  at  the  appropriate  time. 

486.  THE  GENERAL  USES  OF  ALL  THE  ORGANS  must 
be  such  as  has  been  assigned  to  them,  and  these  will  be 
convenient  guides  to  the  student,  in  present  or  future 
studies,  toward  developing   truth  and  detecting  error. 
The  classing  of  the  organs  under  the  appropriate  heads 
of  Apparatus  enables  the  student  at  once  to  perceive 
their  general  relations  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole 
Body,  and  will  enable  him   easily  to  remember  them, 
hanging,  as  it  were,  in  so  many  clusters,  and  these  also 
grouped  about  their  centres. 

487.  THE  PARTICULAR  MODES  OF  ACTION  of  the  va-. 
rious  organs  can  only  be  understood  by  studying  the  na- 
ture or  properties  of  the  various  substances  of  which 
they  are  composed,  which  will  be  the  topic  of  the  next 
chapter. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  the  student  become  quite  familiar  with  the  general 
appearance  of  the  organs,  their  positions  and  their  general  uses,  before  he  attempts 
to  master  their  particular  structure  and  uses.  He  should  endeavor,  with  his  own 
mind's  eye,  to  see  them  in  the  Body  itself;  should,  upon  the  surface  of  his  own. 
Body,  mark  out  the  regions  they  occupy,  and  compare  them  with  the  representa- 
tions in  the  cuts.  At  this  stage  of  his  progress  it  will  be  well,  therefore,  for  him 
to  make  a  very  thorough  review  of  the  cuts  preceding;  let  him  also  study  those  in 
the  atlas  appended  to  the  work,  which  have  been  thus  printed  in  order  that  they 
may  be  plainer,  and  that  they  may  be  more  easily  studied  in  a  consecutive  manner. 
Let  him  also  synthetize  the  whole  Body  from  the  point  now  reached,  classing  the 
organs  first  as  Apparatus,  then  as  groups,  and  then  let  him  point  out  what  organs 
are  double  and  what  single,  and  thus  see  in  a  double  manner  the  correctness  of  the 
divisions  already  made.  Then  let  him  review  the  members,  and  determine  what 
organs  exist  in  each  member,  and  why  they  should  exist  where  they  do.  Let  him 
compare  the  kinds  of  organs  in  the  different  members,  and  determine  their  relative 
numbers.  Also,  let  him  observe  and  describe  the  organs  that  are  connected  with 
each  centre,  and  determine  their  relations  to  each  centre;  how.  for  instance,  the 
mouth  serves  the  commercial  capital  or  centre,  and  how  it  serves  the  political  cap- 
itol  or  centre.  In  particular,  let  him  show  the  relation  of  each  organ  to  the  Mind. 

485.  What  —  ?  4S6.  What  are  —  ?  487.  "What  said—?  How  many  Sections 
has  Chapter  V.  ?  To  what  do  they  correspond  ? 

6* 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS. 
General  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene. 

TISSUES,    FLUIDS,    AND   GASES  I     PROPERTIES. 

SECTION   I. 

Tissues  and  their  Properties. 

NOTHING  affords  a  more  profound  source  of  admira- 
tion to  the  intelligent  mind,  than  simplicity  of  means  for 
producing  important  and  varied  results.  Nothing  pleases 
more  than  to  find  a  result  unexpectedly  produced  by  the 
varied  action  of  a  cause  previously  understood.  How 
astonishing  and  pleasing  to  find  that  all  the  varieties  and 
shades  of  color  may  result  from  mixing  only  three,  Red, 
Yellow,  and  Blue !  We  look  upon  the  bright  red  blood 
almost  with  veneration,  when  we  learn  that  the  life  of 
the  body  is  in  its  keeping,  and  that  all  the  organs  are 
built  up,  kept  in  repair  and  at  a  proper  temperature,  by 
means  of  that  single  fluid.  How  much  more  of  gran- 
deur pervades  the  heavens  when  it  is  discerned  that  in- 
stead of  cycles  upon  cycles,  spheres  within  spheres,  the 
incomprehensible  jargon  of  combined  forces  of  the  an- 
cients, one  simple  law  of  gravitation  pervades  all  space, 
and  keeps  all  bodies  in  their  orbits  !  The  causes  of  or- 
ganic action  will  therefore  especially  delight  the  mind. 


What  is  the  subject  of  Chap.  VI.  ?    What  is  the  subject  of  Section  I.  ?    What 
said  of  simple  causes? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF    ORGANS.  131 

488.  THE  STUDENT  WILL  CONCLUDE,  as  he  glances 
over  the  large  number  of  organs  and  their  uses,  that 
they  must  be  composed  of  a  great  number  of  substances. 

489.  HE    WILL    BE     SURPRISED    AND    DELIGHTED    TO 

LEARN  that  only  six  kinds,  modified  as  circumstances  re- 
quire, with  their  inherent  properties,  are  necessary. 

490.  IF    HE    CAREFULLY    INSPECTS    ALL  THE  ORGANS, 

he  will  perceive  that  whatever  their  forms,  textures,  at- 
tachments, or  uses,  they  are  only  required  to  form  fluids, 
or  to  contract,  or  to  excite,  or  to  be  tough  and  flexible, 
or  to  be  firm  and  elastic,  or  to  be  rigid — or  several  of 
these  at  the  same  time. 

491.  Illus. — The  Heart  is  a  pouch  that  requires  to 
be  formed  of  a  substance  tough  and  flexible,  of  one  that 
can  contract,  of  one  that  can  excite  contraction,  and  of 
one  that  can  form  a  fluid  to  keep  its  surfaces  glairy  and 
free  from  friction — four  substances,  having  four  properties. 

492.  THE  STUDENT  CANNOT  NAME  an  organ  the  use 
of  which  requires  more  or  other  than  the  six  substances 
with  the  properties  mentioned. 

493.  TISSUE  is  the  name  given  to  the  substances  of 
which  the  organs  are  composed. 

494.  PROPERTY  is  the  name  given  to  the  peculiar  char- 
acteristic that  renders  a  tissue  serviceable  in  an  organ. 

495.  The  names  of  the  Tissues  and  Properties  are 

as  follows : 

PROPERTIES. 


{Bony  or  Osseous,  Rigid. 

Gristly  or  Cartilaginous,  Firm  and  Elastic. 

Sinewy  or  Fibrous,  Tough  and  Flexible. 

( Nervous,  To  Excite. 

(^  Active    •<  Muscular,  To  Contract. 

(  Secretory,  To  Secrete. 

The  composition  of  the  organs  and  the  character  of 
the  tissue  will  be,  perhaps,  made  more  impressive  by 
the  subjoined  synopsis  of  the  Tissues  composing  each 
organ.  The  figures  refer  to  the  number  of  varieties  of 


488.  What  — ?  489.  What— ?  490.  What  — ?  491.  What  is  the  heart  ?  492.  What 
—  ?    493.  What  is  — ?    494.  Define  — .    495.  What  —  ?    Write  and  explain  table. 


132 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


tissue  in  each  organ.  It  is  observable  that  no  organs, 
except  the  Ear,  Eye,  Nose,  Mouth,  Pharynx,  Larynx, 
and  Trunk-walls,  are  composed  of  six  kinds  of  Tissue, 
and  these  are  compound  organs.  No  other,  except  the 
Skeleton,  has  more  than  four. 


GANGLIA 

— 





Sin. 

Sec. 



Ner. 

W 

NKRVKS 

:_ 



— 

Bin. 

Sec. 

Ner.  (  W1 

KAP. 

=; 

Bony 

Gristly 

Sin. 

4 

Sea 

Muscular 

3  Ner. 

l^V) 

Evi: 

—_ 

Bony 

Gristly 

Sin. 

4 

Sec. 

Muscular 

8  Ner. 

\V) 

NOSE 

r 

Bony 

Gristly 

Sin. 

Sec. 

Muscular 

2  Ner. 

'\Vi 

MOUTH 

— 

Bony 

Gristly 

Sin. 

8 

Sec. 

Muscular 

3  Ner.  (W) 

SKIN 

= 

— 

— 

2  Sin. 

Sec. 



Ner. 

W) 

MUSCLES 







Sin. 

Sec. 

Muscular 

2  Ner. 

iW) 

SKELETON 



Bony 

Gristly 

2  Sin. 

Sec. 

Ner. 

wj 

HEARTS 

-  — 





Sin. 

Sec. 

Muscular 

N"er. 

(W 

BLOOD-TUBES 



— 

— 

.Sin. 

Sec. 

(Muscular) 

Ner. 

W 

PHARYNX 



Bony 

Gristly 

Sin. 

Sec, 

Muscular 

Ner. 

W 

LARYNX 



Bony 

Gristly 

Sin. 

Sec. 

Muscular 

Ner. 

W 

WINDPIPE 



— 

Gristly 

Sin. 

Sec. 

Muscular 

Ner. 

W 

LUNGS 
TRUNK-WALLS 

= 

Bony 

Gristly 
Gristly 

Sin. 
2  Sin. 

3  Sue.  (Muscular) 
8  Sec.  Muscular 

Ner. 
Ner. 

w; 

SALIVARY  GL. 



_ 



2  Sin. 

3 

Sec. 

— 

Ner. 

OESOPHAGUS 



__ 



Sin. 

Sec. 

Muscular 

Ner. 

W) 

STOMACH 

— 





Sin. 

3 

Sec. 

Muscular 

Ner.  (W) 

GASTRIC  GL. 

. 



_ 

Sin. 

8 

Sec. 



Ner. 

w> 

SECOND  STOMACH 

— 

— 



Sin. 

I 

Sec. 

Muscular 

Ner.  (W5 

LIVER 



_ 



Sin. 

8 

Sec. 



Ner.  ( 

Wj 

GALL-B. 



_ 

__ 

Sin. 

I 

Sec. 



Ner. 

W) 

PANCREAS 

— 

— 

_ 

Sin. 

8 

Sec. 



Ner.  < 

W) 

BRUNNER'B  GL. 



_ 



Sin. 

B 

Sec. 



Ner.  ( 

W) 

LIEBERKUHN'S  GL. 

— 

— 



Sin. 

8 

Sec. 

— 

Ner. 

w 

PEYER'S  GL. 



— 



Sin. 

8 

Sec. 



Ner. 

W) 

LACTEALS 







Sin. 

S 

Sec. 



Ner. 

\V) 

COLON 

— 

— 



Sin. 

1 

Sec. 

Muscular 

Ner. 

\v 

KIDNEYS 



_ 



Sin. 

2 

Sec. 

Ner.  ( 

w 

PERSPIRATORY  GL. 

— 

— 

— 

Sin. 

Sec. 

Ner.  (W) 

BLOOD-CELLS 



— 

— 



Sue. 

SPLEEN 





— 

Sin. 

Sec. 



Ner.  ( 

W) 

LYMPHATIC  GL. 

—  - 

— 



Sin. 

Sec. 

Ner.  (W' 

THYROID  GL. 

. 

— 



Sin. 

Sec. 

Ner. 

w 

THYMUS  GL. 

= 

_ 

— 

Sin. 

Sec. 

—             Ner.  (W 

RENAL  CAPSULE.  » 

= 

— 

— 

Sin. 

Sec. 

-             Ner.  (W 

496.  TEXTUKE  is  the  name  given  to  the  peculiar 
form  into  which  Tissues  are  wrought. 

497.  Illus. — Cotton  batting,  cotton  wadding,  cotton 
thread,  cotton  muslin,  etc.,  are  expressions  of  the  tissue 
cotton  wrought  in  various  textures. 

498.  Illus. — Sinewy  substance  in  one  texture  is  ten- 
don, in  another  is  ligament,  in  another  is  skin  or  mem- 
brane ;  which  may  be  expressed,  Sinewy  tendon,  Sinewy 
ligament,  Sinewy  membrane. 

499.  THE  SIMPLICITY  OF  THE  ORGAXIC  STRUCTURE  is 
observed  not  only  by  the  modifications  of  Tissue  and  by 


496.  What  -?     497.   How  illustrated? 
499.  What  said  of-? 


How  sinewy  textures  named? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF    ORGANS.  133 

its  differences  of  texture  in  different  cases,  but  by  the 
differences  in  its  quantity,  and  in  the  form  and  other  pe- 
culiarities of  Organs  ;  which  must  be  noticed  when  each 
organ  is  considered  in  detail. 

500.  Illus. — THE  HEART  AND  STOMACH  ARE  COM- 
POSED of  four  of  the  same  kinds  of  Tissue.     Both  organs 
require  a  framework  of  sinewy  tissue  formed  into  pouch- 
es, but   the  size  and   form  of  the  organs  must   differ. 
The   sinewy  tissue  must  in  both  cases  be  wrought  so 
as  to  leave  meshes,  but  in  a  different  order,  to  receive 
muscular  tissue  that  must  be  differently  arranged  to  pro- 
duce different  kinds  of  motion  in  the  two  cases.     Ner- 
vous tissue  must  be  inserted  in  each  according  to  the 
muscular  arrangement.     The  outer  surface  of  each  must 
be  formed  of  the  same  variety  of  secretory  (the  serous) 
tissue  to   produce  the   same  variety  of  fluid  for  the 
purpose   of  preventing  friction;    but  while  the  Heart 
should  be  lined  with  the  same  variety  of  secretory  (se- 
rous) tissue,  the  Stomach  must  be  lined  with  a  variety 
that  will  secrete  a  more  viscid  fluid,  and  the  Stomach 
must  also  be  furnished  a  variety  to  secrete  the  gastric 
juice.     They  are  therefore  very  much  alike,  and  yet 
very  distinctly  different.      The  Heart  and  Diaphragm 
are  just  alike  in  tissural  constitution,  and  only  differ  in 
size,  form,  and  position  ;  the  Diaphragm  being  the  Heart 
spread  out,  and  the  Heart  being  the  Diaphragm  in  the 
form  of  a  pouch. 

501.  SYSTEM  is  the  name  given  to  all  of  any  kind  of 
Tissue  in  a  living  thing  arranged  as  it  naturally  exists. 

502.  Inf. — There  are  as  many  systems  in  the  Body 
as  there  are  Tissues. 

(Bony        I 
Gristly 
Nervous      \  Systems' 
Muscular 
Secretory  J 

503.  SYSTEM  is  ALSO  USED,  though  not  with  perfect 
propriety,  for  naming  the  whole  of  any  kind  of  parts 
of  similar  structure. 

500.  Illustrate  how  —  ?  The  heart  and  diaphragm.    501.  What  is  —  ?  502  Write 
and  explain  table  of  — .    503.  How  —  ? 


134  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

504.  Illus.— The   Arteries   or  Veins  of  the   Body 
taken  together  are  called  the  Arterial  System,  the  Vein- 
ous  System,  etc. 

505.  FROM  TISSUES,  either  of  two  modes  of  synthe- 
sis of  the  Body  may  be  chosen. 

506.  TISSUES  MAY  BE  FORMED  into  systems,  and  these 
united  into  what  will  most  properly  be  called  the  Human 
System;  or, 

507.  TISSUES  MAY  BE  WROUGHT  into  Organs,  these 
arranged  as  Apparatus,  etc.,  and  the  Body  produced. 


SECTION  II. 

Fluids  and  their  Properties. 

508.  FLUIDS  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  essential  parts 
of  any  organ ;  yet  as  they  are  essential  to  the  action  of 
each,  and,  in  common  with  Tissues,  are  composed  of 
organic  and  chemical  Elements,  derived  from  air,  water, 
and  food,  they  may  be  properly  classed  under  the  analy- 
sis of  organs. 

509.  THE  NECESSITY  FOR  FLUIDS  is  evidently  of 
three  classes :  1  st,  All  substances  that  are  to  be  moved 
from  one  place  to  another,  must  be  in  a  fluid  condition. 
2d,  The  surface  of  the  Body  must  be  protected  by  fluids. 
3d,  The  Digestory  processes,  as  we  have  seen,  require 
fluids  for  dissolving  food. 

510.  FLUIDS,  THEREFORE,  MUST  BE  of  three  classes, 
General,  Surface,  and  Digestory,  of  which  the  character 
of  the  last  has  been  shown. 

511.  THE  SURFACES  of  the  Body  are  of  three  kinds : 
1st,  that  of  the  external  skin ;  2d,  those  of  the  lining 
of  the  air  and  food  canals ;  and,  3d,  those  where  the  or- 
gans only  are  in  contact  with  each  other. 

512.  THE   SURFACE   OF  THE   EXTERNAL   SKIN    RE- 


604.  Illustrate.    506.  How— ?    50T  How—?   508.  What  enid  of — ?   609.  What 
said  —  ?    610.  How  class  —  ?    51 1 .  How  class  —  ?    512.  What  does  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF    ORGANS.  135 

QUIRES  an  oily  fluid  that  shall  prevent  too  great  evap- 
oration from  the  skin  (not  evaporation  of  the  perspira- 
tion which  flows  out  of  its  tubes  on  to  the  surface  of  the 
oil),  and  protect  it  from  other  external  influences. 

513.  THE  OILY  FLUID  is  of  three  varieties,  the  com- 
mon, the  ear-wax,  and  the  viscid  fluid  of  the  Meibomian 
glands  that  keeps  the  tear-fluid  from  pouring  over  the 
lids. 

FIG.  114. 


Fig.  114  represents  the  left  eye-lids,  cut  through  as  far  from  their 
opening  as  possible,  and  the  Lachrymal  Gland  drawn  from  its  place,  and 
with  the  lids  turned  toward  the  nose  to  show  the  inner  surface  of  the  lids, 
in  which  the  Meibomian  Glands,  6,  are  seen,  opening  at  the  edges,  between 
which  the  lashes  are  seen.  14,  numerous  openings  of  the  ducts,  9,  10, 
from  the  Gland,  7,  8.  12,  13  are  the  minute  openings  at  the  inner  corner 
of  the  lids,  through  which  the  tear-fluid  passes  to  the  nose. 

514.  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  AIR  AND  FOOD  PASSAGES 
requires  a  slimy  but  not  oily  fluid,  called  mucus,  that 
will  not  too  readily  evaporate,  and  will  facilitate  the 
passage  of  the  air  and  food ;  and  as  the  evaporation  in 
the  nose  and   mouth  is   greater  than  elsewhere,  they 
should  both  be  still  further  moistened. 

515.  THE  LINING  OF  THE  NOSE  is  kept  moist  by  the 
mucus,  and  the  tear-fluid  that  passes  into  the  nose  after 
serving  its  purpose  in  the  eye. 


518.  How  class  —  ?   Describe  Fig.  114.    514.  What  do  —  ?   515.  What  said  of—? 
What  is  the  quantity  of  the  tear-fluid  ?    Is  it  always  the  same  ? 


136 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 
FlQ.  115. 


18234 


FIG.  116. 


Fig.  115,  2,  the  same  as  12,  Fig. 
114;  1,  ducts  leading  the  tear-fluid 
from  2  to  5,  covered  by  7. 

Fig.  116,  5,  same  as  in  115,  extend- 
ing into  the  nose  at  6.  1,  the  same  as 
2,  and  3  same  as  1,  of  115.  4,  where  3 
joins  5.  (The  three  preceding  cuts 
beautifully  illustrate  the  tear  appara- 
tus, for  so  it  may  be  called.)  The 
tear-fluid,  formed  in  the  gland,  Fig. 
114,  passes  down  to  the  eye,  and  over 
it,  as  shown  by  115,  to  the  openings  2, 
from  which  it  glides  through  the  ducts 
down  into  the  nose.  (See  Plate  4.) 


THE  LINING  OF  THE  MOUTH  is  kept  moist  by 
the  saliva,  in  addition  to  the  mucus,  which  is  supplied 
to  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  in  large  quantities  by 
the  Amygdaloid  glands  (tonsils),  to  facilitate  the  swal- 
lowing of  food. 

517.  THE  SURFACES  OF  THE  ORGANS  IN  CONTACT 
WITH  EACH  OTHER  REQUIRE  a  very  watery  fluid,  called 
serum  or  serous  fluid,  simply  to  prevent  adhesion  and 
friction. 


Describe  Figs.  115,  116.    What  are  remarkable  characteristics  of  tear-fluid? 
516.  What  said  of — ?    517.  What  said  of  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF    ORGANS.  137 

518.  THE  SERUM  is  of  three  varieties :  1st,  the  com- 
mon ;  2d,  the  sy  no  vial,  that  lubricates  the  joints  or  bur- 
sse,  is  a  little  more  viscid,  and  in  some  of  the  joints  has 
an  appropriate  arrangement  for  supplying  it  in  large 
quantities ;  and  3d,  the  tear-fluid,  that  has  a  small  por- 
tion of  salt  to  make  it  beautifully  transparent,  and  is 
supplied  by  an  organ  for  the  purpose. 

519.  THE  GENERAL  FLUIDS  are  of  three  kinds,  Flesh- 
juice,  Lymph,  and  Blood.  1 

520.  FLESH-JUICE  is  required  by  all  the  organs  to. 
keep  them  in  a  proper  condition  of  pliability,  etc. 

521.  LYMPH,  or  white  Blood,  is  a  slightly-colored 
watery  fluid,  containing  an  immense  number  of  white 
cells,  from  which  it  is  supposed  the  red  cells  of  the  Blood 
are  formed. 

522.  LYMPH  EXISTS  in  all  parts  of  the  Body  except 
the  Brain  and  Nerves.     Its  rationale  is  not  understood. 
The  Lacteal  fluid  is  considered  as  one  form  of  Lymph. 

523.  BLOOD,  the   common   necessity   and   common 
result  of  all  the  fluids  and  all  the  organs,  is  everywhere 
found :   its  water  serves  as  a  solvent  and  a  vehicle  to 
whatever  is  thrown  into  it ;  its  living  cells  work  as  they 
circulate ;  its  character  is  constantly  changing,  yet  ever 
the  same,  owing  to  the  wonderful  provision  that  the  ac- 
tion of  one  part  of  the  Body  is  ever  balancing  the  action 
of  another;  and  the  velocity  of  its  current  is  such  that 
its  entire  resources  are  every  few  moments  present  to 
every  minute  portion  of  the  Body.    It  equalizes  the  heat 
of  the  Body  by  swiftly  coursing  through   every  part, 
gathering  heat  from  one  and  distributing  it  to  another ; 
and  when  the  whole  Body  is  too  warm,  it  pours  out  its 
watery  portion  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin  to  be  freely 
evaporated,  and  thus  carry  off  the  surplus  heat ;  or,  if 
the  Body  is  too  cool,  it  yields  a  portion  of  its  water  to 
the  kidneys. 

518.  How  class  -?  519.  How  class  —  ?   520.  What  said  of—?   521.  What  is  —  ? 
522.  Where  does  —  ?    523.  What  is  ~  ? 


138 


GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 


624.     Summing  up : 


FLUIDS  < 


'  Blood, 

Lymph,         2  var. 

General. 

Flesh-juice, 

Serum,          3  var. 

Mucus, 

Surface. 

Oil,               3  var. 

Saliva,          2  var. 

Gastric-juice, 

Pancreatic-juice, 

Bile, 

Digestory. 

Gall, 

Brunner's  gland-juice, 

Lieberkuhn's  gland-juice, 

Peyer's  gland-juice, 

SECTION  IH. 
Gases. 

525.  IT  is  NOT  KNOWN  how  many  kinds  of  gases 
are  uniformly  present  in  the  Body,  nor  is  their  use  or 
mode  of  action  well  understood. 

526.  CARBONIC  ACID  AND  OXYGEN  GAS,  in  larger 
or  smaller  quantities,  can  always  be  found  in  the  Blood, 
and  are  essential  to  its  efficiency ;  the  others  found  at 
times  are  probably  accidental. 

527.  THUS  ANALYSIS  FINDS  the  three  forms  of  mat- 
ter, Tissues,  Liquids,  and  Gases,  essential  to  the  compo- 
sition and  action  of  Organs. 

528.  IT  is  EVIDENT  that  in  passing  from  the  study 
of  the  Organs  and  their  uses  to  that  of  Tissues,  Fluids, 
Gases,  and  their  Properties,  the  character  of  the  study 
has  changed  from  that  of  special  parts  to  that  of  general 
parts,  or  those  common  to  many  organs.     Hence, 

529.  The   study  of  parts   above  Tissues  is  called 
Special,  and  the  study  of  all  below  Organs  is  called 
General  Physiology,  Anatomy,  and  Hygiene.     For  the 
former  the  unassisted  eye  is  sufficient,  for  the  latter  the 
microscope  is  necessary. 

624.  Table  of  —  ?    525  What  —  ?    526.  Where  —  found  ?    527.  What  does  —  ? 
628.  What  —  ?    529.  Define  special  and  general. 


SYSTEMATIC    ANALYSIS    OF    ORGANS.  139 

530.  IT  MUST  NOT  BE  SUPPOSED  that  passing  from 
the  study  of  Organs  to  that  of  Tissues  is  a  step  down- 
ward, in  the  sense  of  inferiority  of  importance. 

531.  THE  STUDY  OF  TISSUES  is  more  important  than 
that  of  Organs,  for  evidently  their  properties  wholly  de- 
pend upon  those  of  their  Tissues. 

532.  EACH  TISSUE  IN  AN  ORGAN  ACTS  independently, 
and  an  organ  exhibits  not  the  combined  but  the  collec- 
tive properties  of  its  Tissues  j  therefore, 

533.  THE  PERFECTION  OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE 
WHOLE  BODY  depends  upon  the  perfection  of  its  Tissues, 
Fluids,  and  Gases.     But, 

534.  TISSUES  DO  NOT  EXIST  as  such  in  the  Blood; 
only  their  elements  exist  in  it. 

535.  IT  is  A  QUESTION  whether  any  of  the   other 
Fluids  exist  as  such  in  the  Blood.     Probably  some  of 
them  do;  others  certainly  do  not. 

536.  EACH  TISSUE  HAS  the  property,  under  proper 
influences,  of  forming  itself  from  elements  furnished  by 
the  Blood,  and  drawn  from  it  by  the  Tissue. 

537.  THE  FORMATION  OF  PERFECT  TISSUE  requires 
three  conditions:  1st,  Perfect  Tissue  to  form  itself;  2d, 
Perfect  influences ;  and,  3d,  Perfect  elements  furnished 
by  the  Blood.    Default  in  either  will  produce  a  deranged 
organ. 

538.  THE  TISSUES,  OR  THE  INFLUENCES  ACTING  UP- 
ON THEM,  IN  ONE  ORGAN  MAY  BE  perfect,  and  those  in 
another  imperfect ;  while  if  the  elements  furnished  are 
imperfect,  all  the  corresponding  Tissues  of  the  whole 
Body  must  be  imperfect. 

539.  Inf. — The  Body  must  not  be  studied  as  com- 
posed of,  nor  the  Tissues  as  composing,  Systems;  but 
the  Tissues  must  be  studied  as  parts  of  Organs,  that 
their  liabilities  to  derangement  may  be  understood. 

540.  Inf. — To  UNDERSTAND  TISSUES,  their  Elements, 
and  how  they  are  produced,  must  be  understood.       s 


530.  What— ?  531.  What  said  of— ?  532.  How  does  —  ?  53B.  On  what  —  ?  534.  Do 
— ?    535.  What  —  ?    586.  What  -  ?    537.  What  —  ?    538.  What  —  ?    539.  How  —  ? 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SYSTEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  TISSUES  AND  FLUIDS. 

ORGANIC  AND  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS. 

541.  HITHERTO  the  several  characteristics  of  parts 
have  merely  exhibited  the  sum  of  the  characteristics  of 
their  subdivisions;  guided  by  this  indication,  the  Analy- 
sis has  been  obvious,  and  easily  made. 

542.  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  TISSUES  WILL  EXHIBIT  en- 
tirely new  features ;  and  the  student  will  perceive  that 
in  entering  upon  the  study  of  General  Physiology,  Anat- 
omy, and  Hygiene,  he  has  entered  upon  a  new  field  of 
inquiry,  and  must  adopt  new  methods  of  investigation. 

543.  HE  WILL  BE  WELL  REWARDED,  as  he  will  reach 
the  very  heart  and  marrow  of  the  practical  phase  of  the 
subject,  which  will  also  present  to  his  mind  the  most 
exquisite,  delicious,  seedful  thoughts. 

544.  THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  TISSUES  are  not  the 
sum  of  those  exhibited  by  their  components. 

545.  THE    PROPERTIES   OF   TISSUES   DEPEND  upon 
their  own  nature ;  and  the  only  reason  to  be  given  why 
it  is  so,  is,  that  it  has  been  so  ordained. 

546.  Him. — THE   REASON   WHY   MUSCULAR  TISSUE 
CONTRACTS  is,  that  it  is  its  nature  to  contract,  and  carti- 
lage or  gristle  is  elastic  because  it  is  its  nature  to  be  so, 
and  not  because  any  of  its  components  alone  have  any 
measure  of  it,  for  they  do  not. 

547.  THE  COMPONENTS  OF  TISSUES  CANNOT  THERE- 
FORE  BE    INDICATED  by  their  properties,  but  must  be 


541.  What  has  been—?     542.   What  —  ?     643.   Why   —  ?     544.  What  —  ? 
545.  On  what  —  ?    546.  What  is  —  ?    547.  What  said  since  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OP   TISSUES    AND    FLUIDS.      141 

sought  in  some  other  way,  which  we  will  proceed  to 
find. 

548.  THE  TISSUES  MUST  VARY  IN  QUALITY  in  differ- 
ent cases ;  therefore  they  must  be  compounds — for  if  sim- 
ple substances,  they  would  be  always  the  same. 

549.  THE  TISSUES  CANNOT  BE  DEFINITE  COMPOUNDS, 
for  if  they  were  they  would  be  uniform,  which  they  are 
not. 

550.  TISSUES  MUST  THEREFORE  BE  TRUE  COMPOUNDS, 
no  part  of  the  characteristics  of  which  are  possessed  by 
their  components  alone,  but  which,  nevertheless,  by  their 
different  proportions,  affect  the  quality  of  the  Tissue. 

551.  THIS  CHARACTERISTIC  OF  TISSUE,  viz.,  being  a 
true  but  yet  indefinite  compound,  shows  that  it  is  en- 
dowed with  life,  for  it  is  only  in  the  domain  of  life  that 
such  a  thing  can  be ;  indeed,  it  is  a  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic of  life  to  produce  indefinite  compounds,  while 
chemistry  always  produces  definite  compounds. 

552.  THE  THREE  ACTIVE  TISSUES,  AT  LEAST,  exhibit 
power  when  they  act.     Every  contraction  of  a,  :aiw=ele 
not  only,  but  every  nervous  action,  and  every  secretion, 
exhibits  or  represents  power ;  but, 

553.  THE   EXHIBITION   OF  POWER  is  ALWAYS  a  de- 
structive process,  is  always  not  only  attended  with,  but 
produced  by,  decomposition  of  substance. 

554.  EACH  ACTION  OF  TISSUE  is  THEREFORE  ATTEND- 
ED BY  OR  DEPENDENT  UPON  decomposition  of  a  corre- 
sponding amount  of  substance. 

555.  Illus. — Cattle  are  sometimes  chased,  or  "  run," 
as  it  is  termed,  by  dogs,  just  before  being  killed,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  their  meat  tender.     It  will  not  keep 
long  in  such  a  case,  as  it  has  to  so  great  a  degree  been 
made  to  undergo  decomposition  already,  and  is  not  worth 
as  much  for  food  on  this  account. 

556.  THE  TISSUE  AS  IT  DECOMPOSES  must  be  corre- 


548.  What  follows  if  —  ?    549.  Why  —  ?    550.  Why  —  ?    551.  —  shows  what? 
552.  What  said  of  —  ?  .  553.  What  is  —  ?    554.  What  is  —  ?    556.  What  said  of  —  ? 


142  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

spondingly  reproduced,  in  order  to  preserve  its  perfect 
state  for  action. 

557.  ONE  OF  THE  MOST  REMARKABLE  AND  INTEREST- 
ING PROPERTIES  OF  TISSUE  is  its  power  of  self-growth, 
or  of  reproducing  itself. 

558.  TIME  is  one  of  the  elements  required  for  per- 
fect reproduction ;  for  if  the  Tissue  is  decomposed  before 
sufficient  time  has  been  allowed  for  its  perfect  formation, 
the  result  is  incomplete  and  pernicious. 

559.  IT   MIGHT  AT  FIRST  THOUGHT  BE  SUPPOSED   that 

as  the  decomposing  Tissue  necessarily  contains  all  the 
components  of  Tissue,  it  would  only  be  necessary  for  the 
Tissue  to  re-form  itself  from  them. 

560.  IT  MUST  BE  CONSIDERED,  however,  that  if  the 
Tissue  could  reproduce  itself  from  its  decomposed  sub- 
stances, just  as  much  power  would  be  required  for  re- 
composition  as  had  been  obtained  by  decomposition ;  so 
that  nothing  would  be  gained. 

561.  IT  WOULD  BE  A  GREAT  FALLACY  tO  SUppOSC  that 

power  can  be  exhibited  without  it  has  first  been  obtained 
from  some  source,  and  without  the  destruction  of  a  cor- 
responding amount  of  substance. 

562.  THE  TISSUES,  THEREFORE,  MUST  BE  SUPPLIED 
with  and  form  themselves  from  components  that   are 
themselves  indefinite  compounds,  possessing  (or,  so  to 
speak,  storehouses  of)  the  power  exhibited  when  the  Tis- 
sues decompose. 

563.  THE  SELF-PRODUCING  PROPERTY  OF  TISSUES  is 
LIMITED  to  forming  themselves  from  components  pre- 
viously compounded  and  previously  prepared. 

564.  SINCE  THE  POWER  TO  BE  EXHIBITED  BY  THE 
TISSUES  cannot  be  produced  in  the  Body  without  an  equal 
expenditure  of  power,  it  must  be  condensed  or  stored  in 
the  components  of  Tissue  by  the  action  of  plants,  from 
which  all  food  is  directly  or  indirectly  obtained. 


667.  What  Is  — ?     658.  What  said  of  —  ?     5T9.  What  —  ?     660.   What  — ? 
Ml.  What  —  ?    562.  With  what  -  ?    66a  How  -  ?    564.  What  effect  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   TISSUES   AND   FLUIDS.      143 

565.  PLANTS   thrust   their  roots    into   the   ground 
and  their  branches  and  leaves  into  the  air,  and,  basking 
in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  gather  from  the  air,  water,  and 
earth  the  various  elements  that,  under  the  influence  and 
power  of  the  sun's  rays  during  a  long  period  of  time, 
they  combine  into  indefinite  compounds,  possessed  of  the 
power  that  has  thus  grown  up  in  them. 

566.  As  COAL  slumbering  in  the  Earth  contains  heat 
embodied,  during  ages  past,  in  the  growing  plants  of 
which  coal  is  the  remains,  so  do  the  nutritious  parts  of 
plants  embody  power  derived  from  the  sun  during  their 
production,  which  power  will  come  out  again  when  their 
decomposition  takes  place.     The  coal  may  lie  for  a  day 
or  for  ages — the  heat   locked  in  it  will  appear  when- 
ever and  wherever  it  returns  to  the  form  it  had.     So  the 
grain  of  wheat  may  remain  a  month  or  a  year  unchanged, 
yet  contains  a  latent  power,  the  source  of  which  was  the 
sun,   that   will   be   exhibited   whenever   decomposition 
takes  place. 

567.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF   THE   SUN'S  KAYS,  acting 
through  the  mechanism  of  plants,  stores  up  power  in 
their  nutritious  parts.     This  power  is  not  lost  when  they 
are  eaten,  but  follows  the  substances  in  which  it  exists 
till  they  have  become  Tissues,  and  decompose,  when  it 
again  exhibits  itself. 

568.  THE  SUBSTANCES  FURNISHED  BY  PLANTS  doubt- 
less  require  some  further  preparation  before  they  are 
quite  ready  to  become  components  of  the  Tissues ;  and 
it  has  been  seen  that  they  are  subjected  to  the  action  of 
secretions,  and  it  may  be  to  secretory  processes  in  the 
course  of  the  Blood-circuit. 

560.  THE  BLOOD-CELLS  are  merely  very  simple 
plants  floating  in  the  Blood ;  the  process  of  secretion, 
which  is  the  only  office  they  can  perform,  being  a  vege- 
tative or  plant-like  process. 


565.  What  said  —  ?    566.  What  said  of  —  ?    567.  What  said  of  —  ?    568.  What 
said  of  —  ?    569.  What  are  —  ? 


144  (fENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

570.  SECRETION  is  at  the  same  time  both  a  produc- 
tive and  a  destructive  process.     The  substance  produced 
is  obtained  by  the  expenditure  of  power,  and  that,  as 
said  before,  is  produced  by  destruction  or  decomposition 
of  substance. 

571.  BY  SECRETION  the  power  that  was  in  one  form 
will  appear  in  another.     It  is  a  transformation  of  power. 
By  secretion,  power  is,  so  to  speak,  wrought  up  and  con- 
densed into  higher  capabilities,  and  made  to  serve  more 
exalted  purposes. 

572.  ALL  THE  TISSUES  ARE  THEREFORE  SUBSIDIARY 
to  two,  muscular  and  nervous ;  and  therefore  the  whole 
Body  is  constructed  with  a  view  to  the  production  of 
those  two  Tissues  and  the  appropriate  exhibition  of  their 
properties. 

573.  MUSCULAR  CONTRACTION  AND  NERVOUS  EXCITA- 
TION are  the  two  grand  properties  that  distinguish  ani- 
mal from  vegetable  life,  and  to  them  it  is  subservient. 

574.  VEGETABLE  LIFE  REACHES  up  into  animal  life, 
is  the  basis  of  it,  and  blends  with  it.     The  former  may 
exist  without  the  latter,  but  the  latter  cannot  without 
the  former. 

575.  Inf. — Food  should  be  selected  with  reference 
to  its  adaptability  to  nourish  the  two  Tissues,  as  it  is  not 
supposable  that  two  Tissues  so  different  can  be  equally 
well  nourished  by  the  same  kind  of  aliment. 

576.  Inf.— Not  only  must  the  right  elementary  sub- 
stances be  used  for  food,  but  they  must  also  be  properly 
compounded  before  they  are  eaten. 

577.  IT  CANNOT  TRUTHFULLY  BE  SAID  that  we  un- 
derstand  all  the  steps  in  the  production  of  Tissue  or  the 
precise  number  of  them.     They  are  numerous,  and  sub- 
stances assume  various  forms  from  the  time  they  are  first 
drawn  in  by  the  plant  till  they  appear  as  perfect  tissue ; 
much  time  and  power  are  also  consumed  in  the  produc- 


C70.  What  -  ?    571.  What  effected  —  ?    572.  To  what  -  ?    578.  What  said  -  ? 
574  What  said  of — ?  575.  How  select  Food  ?  576.  What  to  be  eaten  ?  577.  What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   ANALYSIS    OF   TISSUES    AND   FLUIDS.      145 

tion ;  but  the  general  plan  and  idea  have  been  correctly 
exhibited. 

578.  THE   EVOLUTION  OF  NERVOUS  SUBSTANCE,  es- 
pecially the  gray  or  active  part,  is  the  most  time-taking, 
elaborate,  and  expensive  of  all  the  tissues. 

579.  PLANTS   PRODUCE  THE  COMPONENTS  OF  NER- 
VOUS TISSUE  in  comparatively  very  small  quantities,  and 
if  the  nervous  tissue  is  very  active  they  must  be  selected 
with  care. 

580.  THE  COMPONENTS  OF  NERVOUS  TISSUE  abound 
more  in  certain  kinds  of  meat-diet  than  they  do  in  plants, 
as  would  naturally  be  the  case. 

581.  THE  ELABORATE  PROCESS  OF  PERFECTING  THE 
NERVOUS  TISSUE,  combined  with  the  necessity  for  its 
constant  operation  during  waking  hours,  makes  it  neces- 
sary that  it  should  have  periods  of  complete  repose,  as  in 
sleep,  during  which  no  process  requiring  its  action  should 
take  place. 

582.  SINCE  THE  PROCESS  OF  SECRETION  is  VEGETA- 
TIVE, it  can  go  on  during  sleep,  at  a  moderate  degree, 
without  the  influence  of  the  nervous  tissue ;  and  as  the 
Heart  and  the  organs  concerned  in  breathing  rest  three 
fourths  of  the  time,  the  process  of  producing  heat  and 
circulating  Blood  may  take  place  without  the  necessity 
of  long  periods  of  complete  inactivity  in  their  ganglia. 

583.  PROXIMATE  OR  ORGANIC  PRINCIPLES,  OR  OR- 
GANIC ELEMENTS,  are  the  names  given  to  all  the  com- 
ponents produced  in  plants  or  in  the  Body  adapted  to 
its  nutrition. 

584.  WHEN  THE  ORGANIC  ELEMENTS  ARE  ANALYZED 
by  the  chemist,  they  are  found  to  be  composed  of  at  least 
thirteen,  usually  sixteen,  and  sometimes,  but  probably 
accidentally,  nineteen  simple  or  chemical  Elements. 

585.  SIMPLE  OR  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  are  so  called 
because  they  are  the  simplest  substances  known,  having 

578.  What  said  —  ?    579.  What  do  —  ?   580.  What  said  —  ?   581.  What  said  —  ? 
582.  What  inference  — ?  5S3.  What  are —?  584.  What  shown  —  ?  585.  What  are— ? 

7 


146  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

never  been  analyzed ;  therefore  the  Analysis  of  the  Body 
can  be  carried  no  farther. 

586.  CHEMICAL   COMPOUNDS    are  produced  by  the 
combination  of  Elements.      The  character  of  one  does 
not  indicate  that  of  the  other. 

587.  Illus. — Water,  a  liquid,   is   a   chemical   com- 
pound of  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen  gases. 

588.  PLANTS    USE    some  of  the  Elements  in  their 
simple,  but  mostly  in  a  compound,  state. 

589.  ANIMALS  AND  MAN  USE  one  element,  oxygen, 
in  the  air  breathed ;  one  chemical  compound,  water,  as 
a  drink — another,  salt ;  also  Vegetable,  Organic,  or  Prox- 
imate Principles  as  food. 

590.  IT  is  EVIDENT,  from  the  method  of  compound- 
ing the  Tissues,  that  water  and  air  are  used,  not  to  form 
the   Tissues,  but   to  produce  heat,  or  as  vehicles  for 
equalizing  temperatures,  and  bringing  away  substances 
decomposing  in  the  Tissues. 

591.  IN  THE  SYNTHESIS  OF  MAN  from  Chemical  Ele- 
ments, the  first  step  will  be  to  Chemical  Compounds ; 
the  second,  to  Proximate  Elements  ;  the  third,  to  Tissues; 
the  fourth,  to  Organs  /  the  fifth,  to  Apparatus  /  the  sixth, 
to  Groups ;  the  seventh,  to  Members  /  the  eighth,  to  the 
Body  /  the  ninth,  the  MIND,  being  added,  to  MAN. 

592.  IT  SEEMS  TO  BE  PROVED  that  the  Analysis  and 
Synthesis  of  Man  thus  exhibited  is  correct,  from  the  fact 
that  there  are  general  terms  in  common  use  correspond- 
ing to  the  divisions,  and  no  more ;  as  follows : 

Human  Constitution  corresponds  to  Elements. 


u 

System 

« 

"  Tissues. 

II 

Organism 

« 

"  Organs. 

ct 

Apparatus 

M 

"  Apparatus. 

It 

Mechanism 

(( 

"  Groups. 

M 

Body 

<( 

"  Members. 

Man 

«( 

"  Body  and  Mind. 

586.  What  are  —  ?    58T.  What  is  -?    588.  What  do  —  ?    589.  What  do  —  ? 
590.  What  —  ?    591.  What  steps  —  ?    592.  What  —  ?    Write  table. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

CONCLUSION. 

SYSTEMATIC  SYNOPSIS  OF  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 
Golden  Hint -Words. 

593.  A   EEVIEW    OF   THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTERS  WILL 

EXHIBIT  the  idea  that  all  the  practical  suggestions  per- 
taining to  the  welfare  of  Man,  as  related  to  his  Body, 
may  and  should  be  arranged  under  four  heads,  and  three 
divisions  under  each. 

594.  THE  FIRST  HEAD  INCLUDES  all  those  suggestions 
having  reference  to  the  direct  relations  of  Mind  and 
Body,  which  are  briefly  summed  up  in  the  three  words, 
Educate,  Exercise,  Arrange. 

595.  THE  SECOND  HEAD  INCLUDES  all  those  sugges- 
tions having  reference  to  promoting  the  circulation  of 
Blood,  also  briefly  summed  up  in  the  three  words,  Rub, 

Clean,  Clothe. 

596.  THE  THIRD  HEAD  INCLUDES  all  those  sugges- 
tions having  reference  to  the  substances  received  into 
the  Body,  summed  up  briefly  in  three  words,  Air,  Water, 
Food. 

597^  THE  FOURTH  HEAD  INCLUDES  all  those  sugges- 
tions of  a  miscellaneous  character  pertaining  to  the 
Body  generally,  expressed  concisely  in  three  words, 
Sleep,  Repose,  Habits. 

598.     THUS  DO  TWELVE   HINT-WORDS   EXPRESS  the 


593.  What  will  —  ?    594.  What  does  —  ?    595.  What  does  —  ?    596.  What  does 
—  ?    59T.  What  does  —  ?    598.  What  —  ? 


148  GENERAL   ANALYSIS. 

topics   of  a   complete   Hygiene,   arranged  under  four 
heads,  as  follows : 

Educate;         Rub;  Air;  Sleep; 

Exercise;        Clean;  Water;          Repose; 

Arrange;        Clothe;         Food;  Habits. 


Personal  Attractiveness. 

59l9.       A  REVIEW  OF   THE    PRECEDING  ANALYSIS   WILL 

PROVE  that  attractiveness  must  be  dependent  on  one  or 
all  of  six  things:  1st,  the  Natural  Constitution;  2d,  upon 
the  Health  /  3d,  upon  acting  favorably  through  the 
Senses  /  4th,  upon  exhibiting  proper  Emotions,  a  good 
disposition;  5th,  upon  Intellectual  Culture;  and,  6th, 
upon  graceful  Motions. 

600.  IN  REGARD  TO  ALL,  except  the  first,  knowledge 
and  culture  are  essential  to  a  desirable  effect.    The  first, 
if  good,  may  be  a  great  blessing ;  if  bad,  it  may  be  partly 
corrected  or  nearly  balanced  by  assiduous  application  in 
regard  to  the  other  five.     The  twelve  hint-words  will 
always  be  as  serviceable  in  regard  to  personal  appear- 
ance as  they  are  in  respect  to  Health. 

601.  IT  WILL  BE  OBSERVED,  that  the  points  to  be 
considered  correspond  to  the  different  kinds  of  Appara* 
tus,  Motory,  Intellectory,  Emotory,  Sensatory,  and  to 
those  having  direct  relation  to  the  making  and  circulat- 
ing of  the  Blood,  all  of  which  are,  in  a  measure,  depend- 
ent on  their  inherent  constitution,  and  in  part  on  care. 

602.  THUS  DOES  A   GENERAL  ANALYSIS   OF  MAN 
DEMONSTRATE  that  the  study  of  Hygiene  is  one  of  the 
most  fruitful,  as  well  as  gennful,  that  can  occupy  the 
attention  of  the  Mind ;  and  the  further  prosecution  of 
the  subject  under  the  head  of  Synthesis  will,  it  is  hoped, 
prove  still  more  interesting,  since  it  will  exhibit  a  large 
number  of  practical  details. 


Write  table.   599.  What  will  —  ?   600.  What  —  is  essential  to  a  desirable  effect  ? 
601.  What  —  ?    602.  What  —  ? 


INTRODUCTION 

TO    DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


SOME  persons  delight  to  do,  say,  and  write  that  which  is 
novel,  merely  for  the  sake  of  novelty ;  while  others  dare  not 
leave  the  beaten  track,  either  distrusting  their  own  judgment 
or  fearing  criticism.  Again,  some  persons  are  attracted  by  any 
novelty,  merely  because  it  is  novel ;  while  others,  for  the  same 
reason,  condemn  it  without  examination. 

In  this  work,  however,  everything  has  been  written  with 
sole  regard  to  the  good  of  the  pupil ;  and  it  is  anxiously  desired 
that  teachers  should  examine  and  use  it  in  the  same  spirit,  and 
without  bias  or  prejudice. 

Neither  are  they  presented  with  any  untried  novelty ;  the 
success  which  has  attended  the  course  pursued  in  this  work  may 
assure  them  that  in  their  hands  it  also  will  produce  all  the  re- 
sults they  desire. 

The  preceding  remarks  have  been  made  because,  though  the 
succeeding  Part  of  this  work,  being  Synthetic,  is  more  like  the 
plan  usually  pursued  than  the  Analytic  method,  and  the  infer- 
ential style  of  the  First  Part,  yet  there  are  in  the  method  and 
style  of  the  Synthetic  part  conspicuous,  distinguishing  features 
that  cannot  fail  to  be  noticed  as  novel ;  and  the  question  may  be 
asked,  Why  not  adopt  some  of  the  usual  methods  ? 

They  are  not  discarded  for  the  sake  of  something  new  or 
peculiar,  but  because  they  are  not  sufficiently  systematic  and 
compact,  and  because  scholars,  by  their  diligent  use,  do  not 
acquire  that  thorough  understanding  of  these  most  practical  of 
all  subjects  that  is  desirable  and  possible.  For  when  there  has 


150  INTRODUCTION   TO   DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

been  success,  the  teacher,  rather  than  the  book,  has  given  it, 
since  success  has  not  been  uniform,  but  exceptional. 

It  has  been  suggested  that,  in  some  cases,  it  may  be  advisa- 
ble to  commence  recitations  with  the  Synthetic  part :  some  of 
its  features  are  due  to  its  having  been  prepared  with  reference  to 
this  suggestion.  In  such  cases,  however,  it  will  be  best  to  have 
the  class  spend  a  few  of  the  first  recitation  hours  in  reading 
the  Analytic  part — nor  will  it  be  amiss  to  have  the  same  thing 
done  with  the  Second  Part  before  commencing  recitations  in  it ; 
,for  some  parts  of  the  Body  are  so  interwoven  and  so  intimately 
related,  that  it  is  a  great  assistance  to  a  pupil  to  first  gain  a  gen- 
eral familiarity  with  all  the  parts  before  he  studies  their  details. 
In  fact,  the  general  knowledge  gained  by  reading  the  work,  at 
least  the  Synthetic  part,  under  the  eye  and  questioning  of  a 
teacher,  especially  if  reviewed  in  the  same  manner,  will  be  all 
that  is  desirable  for  practical  purposes,  and  none  the  less  profit- 
able because  pleasantly  obtained. 

It  will  also  be  sometimes  convenient,  in  the  Synthetic  part, 
to  have  the  capitalized  words  necessary  to  fill  out  the  questions, 
and  which  have  hitherto  commenced  a  paragraph,  located  in 
other  portions  of  it.  It  is  not  denied  that  this  method  of  ask- 
ing questions  is  sometimes  very  simple,  sometimes  leading,  and 
that  answers  to  them  are  always  very  easily  given;  but  it  is 
remembered  that  teachers  often  have  but  little  time  to  devote 
to  any  one  lesson,  either  to  devise  questions  or  make  explana- 
tions ;  and  it  is  also  noticeable,  that  by  this  plan  questions  may 
be  very  numerous  without  occupying  too  much  space,  thus  de- 
veloping in  recitation  all  the  practical  facts  of  the  lesson,  which 
should  be  the  sole  aim  in  pursuing  this  study.  Teachers  may  be 
fairly  promised  that  if  they  will  ask  the  successive  questions 
and  require  the  corresponding  answers,  they  will,  by  the  time 
the  work  is  recited,  develop  in  the  minds  of  their  pupils  a  thor- 
ough and  in  every  way  practical  knowledge  of  the  subject; 
a  knowledge  not  merely  of  what  is  in  the  book,  but  of  what  is 
in  the  Body,  as  well  as  the  why  and  wherefore  of  its  construc- 
tion ;  a  germinal  knowledge  that  will  not  vanish  when  the  lan- 
guage through  which  it  was  received  is  forgotten;  a  knowledge 
ideaful,  that  will  be  a  leaven,  disciplining  their  minds  as  well 
as  informing  them. 


SYSTEMATIC 

H  TT  I^t  A.  3ST 

PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY,  AND  HYGIENE. 

PART  II. 

DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY,  AND  HYGIENE: 

PEOPEKTIES. 
SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  ELEMENTS. 

SECTION  I. 

Chemical  JEJlements. 

1.  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  is  the  name  given  to  sub- 
stances that  cannot  be  or  have  not  been  analyzed,  and 
are  therefore  supposed  to  be  simple. 

2.  EACH  SIMPLE  ELEMENT  is  ENDOWED  with  pecu- 
liar characteristics,  inherent,  natural,  ordained,  and  un- 
varying. 

3.  IlliLs. — GOLD,  IRON,  when  pure,  are  Elements  uniformly  the  same. 
OXYGEN  AND  NITROGEN,  which  nearly  constitute  the  air  we  breathe,  are 
Elements.  How  different  the  characteristics  of  the  four ! 


What  is  the  topic  of  Part  II.?    Of  Chapter  I.?    Of  Section  I.?    1.  What  — ? 
2.  How  —  ?    3.  What  are  —  ? 


lj-  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

4.  ALL  MATERIAL  THINGS  CAN  BE  REDUCED  by  Analy- 
sis  to  the  Chemical  Elements,  for  it  is  by  that  very  pro- 
cess that  the  existence  of  most  of  them  is  known. 

5.  ALL  MATERIAL  THINGS  ARE  CONSTITUTED  of  Chem- 

ical  Elements,  either  by  the  process  of  mixture  or  com- 
pounding. The  two  processes  and  their  results  are  very  dif- 
ferent, and  very  noteworthy  by  the  Physiological  Student. 

6.  A  MIXTURE  OF  THE  CHEMICAL   ELEMENTS   EXHIB- 
ITS  merely  the   collective   properties  of    the   separate 
Elements.     Ingredients  is  the  proper  name  of  the  con- 
stituents of  a  mixture. 

7.  Ittus. — THE  AIR  is  a  mixture,  chiefly  of  the  two  Elements,  Oxy- 
gen (about  one  fifth)  and  Nitrogen  (nearly  four  fifths).  If  the  proportion 
of  the  ingredients  be  varied,  the  characteristics  of  the  air  will  be  corre- 
spondingly varied,  but  not  changed. 

8.  A  COMPOUND  OF  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  is  such  a 
union  of  them  as  exhibits  to  our  view  entirely  new 
characteristics,  never  dreamed  of  till  seen.  Indeed,  the 
chemist  in  his  laboratory  witnesses  more  wonderful 
realities,  more  unlooked-for  results,  more  admirable  cre- 
ations, than  the  most  extravagant  fancy  has  ever  ima- 
gined it  was  in  the  province  of  enchantment  to  produce. 
The  constituents  of  a  compound  are  appropriately  named 
components. 

9.  Ittus. — WATER  is  a  chemical  compound  constituted  of  two  gases, 
Oxygen  and  Hydrogen,  the  latter  the  lightest  known  substance,  and  on 
that  account  used  to  elevate  balloons.  What  a  wonderful  difference  be- 
tween these  two  Elements  and  their  Compound !  If  the  proportions  of 
the  components  of  a  chemical  compound  are  varied,  the  characteristics 
will  be  changed,  and  it  will  be  a  new  compound. 

10.  SOME  THINGS  ARE  partly  mixtures  and  partly 
compounds. 

11.  Ittus. — WATER,  AS  USUALLY  FOUND,  is  a  mixture  of  the  com- 
pound Water  proper  and  Air,  the  proportion  of  Oxygen  being  considera- 
bly larger  than  in  the  atmosphere,  enabling  fish  to  live  in  the  mixture 
as  they  could  not  hi  the  compound  alone. 


4.  How -?    5.  How  —  ?     6.  What  does-?     7.  What  is  -?    &  What  —  ? 
9.  What  —  ?    10.  What  -  ?    11.  What  -  T 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF    ELEMENTS.  153 

12.  ALL   THE    CHARACTERISTICS   MANIFESTED  BY  SUB- 
STANCES are  not  dependent  alone  on  those  of  the  Ele- 
ments. 

13.  THERE  ARE  A  NUMBER  OF  WHAT  ARE  CALLED 
INFLUENCES  CONSTANTLY  EXERTED  UPON  THE  ELEMENTS 
AND  THEIR  COMPOUNDS,  that  modify  their  characteristics, 
causing  them  to  unite  or  decompose,  and  exhibit  a  varie- 
ty of  powers  or  forces  that,  uninfluenced,  they  could  not 
do. 

14.  IT   IS    QUITE    AS    IMPORTANT   TO   TAKE  NOTICE  OF 

THESE  INFLUENCES  as  it  is  to  consider  the  nature  of  the 
Elements,  for  without  the  influences  the  Elements  would 
be  of  no  avail. 

15.  THE  SUN  POURS  DOWN  three  kinds  of  influences, 
the  Heat)  Light,  and  Chemical  rays,  each  of  which  is 
powerful,  at  diiferent  times,  in  modifying  the  action  of 
the  Elements. 

16.  Illus. — SUGAR  is  a  compound  of  three  simple  elements,  Oxy- 
gen, Hydrogen,  and  Carbon ;  but  they  will  never  unite  so  as  to  form 
sugar,  unless  influenced  by  the  sun's  rays. 

1 7.  ELECTRICITY  OR  MAGNETISM  EXERTS  oftentimes 
a  powerful  influence  on  the  combinations  of  the  Ele- 
ments. 

18.  Illus. — THE  PROPER  PROPORTIONS  OF  OXYGEN  AND  HYDROGEN 
to  form  Water  may  be  mixed  in  a  vessel,  yet  they  will  not  of  themselves 
unite ;  but  if  a  stream  of  electricity  is  sent  through  them,  they  unite  in- 
stantly and  become  Water. 

1 9.  VEGETABLES  EXHIBIT  a  secretory  influence,  caus- 
ing their  growth ;  and  ANIMALS  a  nervous  influence,  modi- 
fying the  Elements,  and  causing  them  to  exhibit  charac- 
teristics not  wholly  their  own. 

20.  There  are,  therefore,  THREE  CLASSES  OF  INFLU- 
ENCES, the  celestial,  the  terrestrial,  and  the  vital,  that 
modify  the  characteristics  of  the  Elements  as  exhibited 
in  their  compounds. 

12.  What  said  of  —  ?    13.  What  effect  of  —  ?    14.  Why  —  ?    15.  What  does  —  ? 
16.  What  —  ?  17.  What  does  -  ?  18.  What  said  -  ?  19.  What  do  -  ?  20.  What  -  ? 

7* 


154  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

21.  THE    CHARACTERISTICS    OP   ANY    COMPOUND  WILL 

DEPEND  therefore  upon  the  Elements  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, as  modified  by  the  influences  exerted  upon  it. 

22.  IN  BRIEF,  THEREFORE,  IT  MAY  BE  SAID  that  every 

compound  is  compounded  of  Elements  and  Influences. 

23.  THE   HUMAN   BODY    CONSEQUENTLY   MUST    BE 
CONSTITUTED  of  Elements  and  Influences;  and 

24.  THE   CHARACTERISTICS   OF   EACH  PART  OF  THE 
BODY  MUST  BE  DEPENDENT  on  the  Elements  of  which 
it  is  constituted  and  the  Influences  exerted  upon  them. 

25.  Inf. — THE  ISSUES  OP  LIFE  AND  DEATH,  of  health  and  sickness, 
must  depend  upon  a  correct  understanding  of  the  Elements  and  their 
modifying  influences. 

26.  THE  NUMBER  AND  KIND  OF  ELEMENTS  CONSTI- 
TUTING THE  BODY  can  only  be  ascertained  by  chemical 
analysis. 

27.  THE  NUMBER  AND  KIND  OF  INFLUENCES  ESSEN- 
TIAL FOR  CONSTITUTING  THE  BODY   can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  carefully  noticing  the  circumstances  in  which 
the  compounding  of  the  Elements  takes  place,  and  noting 
the  modifying  influences  at  work. 

28.  THE  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  BODY  DETER- 
MINES the  fact  that  there  are  uniformly  thirteen  of  the 
same  elements  present  in  it;    usually  three  more  are 
found,  but  they  are  not  essential,  and  are  in  quantities 
so  minute  as  not  to  be  worth  mentioning  in  this  work. 

29.  Two  THINGS  ARE  EVIDENT:    1st,  The  thirteen 
Elements,  properly  influenced,  possess  all  the  endow- 
ments  necessary  to   constitute   the  Body;   and,  2d,  It 
can  possess  only  those  characteristics  that  the  endow- 
ments of  the  thirteen  Elements,  properly  influenced,  can 
confer:  its  sphere  is   therefore   limited  within   certain 
bounds. 

30.  IT    MUST,    HOWEVER,    BE    CONSIDERED    that     the 

same  Elements  uniting  chemically  in  different  propor- 


21.  On  what— ?    22.  What  — ?    23.  Of  what— ?    24.  On  what  — ?    25.  What 
said  of  —  ?  26.  What  said  — ?  27.  What  said -?  28.  What  does  — ?  29.  What -f 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF    ELEMENTS.  155 

tions,  or  in  the  same  proportion  but  in  a  different  order, 
exhibit  entirely  different  characteristics ;  and  therefore, 

31.  Ittus. — A,  B,  (7,  THREE  DIFFERENT  ELEMENTS,  may"  unite  to- 
gether directly ;  or,  A  and  B  may  first  unite,  and  the  compound  then 
unite  with  (7;  or,  A  and  (7ma^  first  unite,  and  that  compound  with  B\ 
or  C  and  B  may  first  unite,  and  then  with  A :  thus  from  the  same  propor- 
tions of  the  same  three  Elements,  four  compounds,  with  very  different 
characteristics,  may  be  supposed  to  be  produced.  Vary  the  proportions 
of  either,  and  four  more  might  result.  So  that  the  thirteen  Elements 
are  surely  enough  to  allow  all  the  compounds  required  for  exhibiting  all 
the  diversities  of  characteristics  needed  in  the  Body.  Indeed, 

32.  IT  WILL  BE  FOUND,  UPON  ANALYSIS  OF  THE    DIF- 
FERENT PARTS  OF  THE  BODY,  that  several  of  the  thirteen 
Elements  are  in  very  small  quantities,  and  exist  in  only 
a  few  parts,  and  that,  in  fact,  the  active  parts  of  the 
Body  are  constituted  of  the  very  small  number  of  six 
Elements. 

33.  THE  THIRTEEN  ELEMENTS  ARE  NAMED  Oxygen, 
Hydrogen,  Carbon,  Nitrogen,  Phosphorus,  Sulphur,  Cal- 
cium, Magnesium,  Silicon,  Potassium,  Sodium,  Chlorine, 
and  Iron. 

34.  IRON  exists  in  the  Blood-cells,  and  may  have 
some  subsidiary  office  in  the  preparation'  of  the  higher- 
tissues,  or  serve  a  purpose  as  a  carrier  of  Oxygen. 

35.  CHLORINE  is  a  gas,  but  is  not  thus  found  in 
Nature.     It  is  one  of  the  components  of  common  Salt, 
and  is  therefore  a  very  common  article,  and  in  that  form 
is  found  in  most  of  the  liquids  of  the  Body.    It  is  also  a 
very  important  component  of  Gastric  juice. 

36.  SODIUM  is  a  silvery-colored,  very  light  metal; 
not  found  thus  in  Nature.     It  is  the  other  component  of 
Salt,  the  technical  name  of  which  is  Chloride  of  Sodium, 
and  in  that  form  exists  in  most  of  the  liquids  of  the 
Body. 

37.  POTASSIUM  is  a  bluish  gray  metal;  not  found 
simple  in  Nature :  combined  with  Chlorine,  it  exists  as  a 


81.  What  said  —  ?   32.  What  —  ?   33.  What  —  ?    34.  Describe  — .    85.  Describe 
— .    36.  Describe  — .    37.  Describe  — . 


156  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

component  of  Chloride  of  Potassium  in  small  quantities 
in  most  of  the  liquids  of  the  Body. 

38.  SILICON  in  very  small  quantities  is  a  component 
of  hair. 

39.  MAGNESIUM  is  a  white  metal,  that  does  not  exist 
in  Nature  pure,  but  is  found  in  large  quantities  as  a 
component  of  Carbonate  of  Magnesia  and  of  Magnesian 
Limestone.     It  exists  in  small  quantities  in  the  Bones 
and  some  other  parts  of  the  Body. 

40.  CALCIUM  is  a  metal,  the  basis  of  lime,  in  which 
form,  combined  with  carbonic  acid,  it  is  a  component  of 
the  Bones,  and  in  small  quantities  of  other  parts. 

41.  SULPHUR  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  all  the 
liquids  and  tissues  of  the  Body,  except  fat.     Its  special 
office  is  not  known,  but  it  is  evidently  a  necessity  to 
Human  life  in  all  its  forms. 

42.  PHOSPHORUS,  a  now  well-known  waxy  substance, 
used  in  making  friction  matches,  not  found  pure  in  Na- 
ture, is  an  element  of  nearly  all  the  Tissues.     It  exists, 
combined  with  lime  (phosphate  of  lime),  in  large  quan- 
tities in  the  bones,  giving  hardness  to  them.     It  also 
exists  in  the  Brain  and  Nerves,  and  especially  abounds 
in  the  gray  part  of  the  Brain.     It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  Elements,  since  the  student  must  suj^ty  food 
containing  it  abundantly,  if  he  would  use  his  Brain 
actively  without  exhaustion. 

43.  NITROGEN  is  a  gas  constituting  nearly  four  fifths 
of  the  Atmosphere,  and  is  an  important  Element  of  all 
the  Tissues  and  liquids  in  the  Body,  except  fat.     It  is  not 
however  taken  into  the  Blood  from  the  atmosphere,  bu\, 
must  come  in  as  a  component  of  food. 

44.  CARBON  is  a  solid,  well-known  substance,  un- 
der the  form  of  coal  or  diamond.     In  the  Body  it  is 
always  combined,  being  a  component  of  Bones  in  con- 
nection with  lime   (carbonate  of  lime),  assisting  with 


88.  Describe  — .    89.  Describe  — .    40.  Describe  — .    41.  Describe  — .    42.  De- 
scribe — .    43.  Describe  — .    44.  Describe  — . 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   ELEMENTS.  157 

phosphate  of  lime  to  give  them  hardness  ;  combined  with 
lime,  potash,  and  soda,  it  exists  in  several  of  the  fluids ; 
it  is  a  component  of  all  the  tissues ;  it  and  Oxygen  com- 
bined are  a  gas,  called  carbonic  acid  gas,  found  in  the 
Blood  and  expired  at  every  breath. 

45.  HYDROGEN  is  a  very  light  gas,  not  existing  pure 
in  Nature,  but  very  abundant  as  a  component  of  water. 
It  is  an  element  of  all  the  Tissues  and  liquids  in  the 
Body,  and  is  obtained  in  both  food  and  drink. 

46.  OXYGEN  is  a  gas,  constituting  nearly  one  fifth  of 
the  Atmosphere,  and  eight  ninths  of  the  weight  of  water. 
It  also  unites  with  Carbon,  forming  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  in  its  turn  unites  with  lime,  potash,  and  soda.     It 
is  also  an  element  in  each  of  the  tissues  and  fluids.     It 
therefore  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  weight  of  the 
Body,  much  more  than  any  other  element,  or  than  all 
of  them.     It  is  obtained  in  the  air  breathed,  drank  in 
the  form  of  water,  and  eaten  in  the  food. 

47.  THE  THIRTEEN  ELEMENTS  MAY  BE  REVIEWED  as 
follows,  under  several  heads : 

Oxygen,          Nitrogen,          Calcium,          Potassium, 
Hydrogen,  •    Phosphorus,     Magnesium,     Sodium,  Iron. 

Carbon,  Sulphur,  Silicon,  Chlorine, 

48.  THE  FIRST  GROUP  OF  THREE  ELEMENTS  are  com- 
ponents of  all  the  tissues  and  liquids  of  the  Body,  in- 
cluding the  fat.     This  might  at  first  view  be  thought  to 
argue  their  superior  importance. 

49.  THE   SECOND  GROUP  OF  THREE  ELEMENTS  are 
components  of  all  the  tissues  and   liquids,  except  fat 
and  the  sinewy  tissue.     They  are  very  conspicuous  in 
the  Brain,  and  are  obtainable  only  from  food,  not  from 
air  or  water.     They  need  the  previous  preparation  that 
food  undergoes.     Sinewy  Tissue  is  comparatively  inert ; 
so  is  FAT  :    its  valuable   power    consists   in   producing 
heat. 


45.  Describe  — .    46.  Describe  — .    47.  How  —  ?    48.  What  said  —  ?    49.  What 
said  of  —  ? 


158  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

50.  THE   SECOND  GROUP  OF  THREE   ELEMENTS   is 

MUCH   THE     MOST    IMPORTANT    IN    THE     BODY,    since     the 

manifestation  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  powers  is 
dependent  on  them. 

51.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  THIRD  GIJOUP  are  chiefly 
useful  in  giving  hardness  to  parts ;  they  serve  admira- 
bly in  the  framework. 

52.  THE    ELEMENTS    OF  THE   FOURTH   GROUP    are 
chiefly  useful  in  forming  the  fluids  of  the  Body. 

53.  IRON,  though  an  essential  Element,  does  not, 
strictly  speaking,  constitute  any  part  of  any  tissue  or 
fluid,  being  part  of  the  contents  of  the  Blood-cells,4ect. 

54.  ANOTHER  IMPORTANT  FACT  is  SUGGESTED  by  a 
review  of  the  third  and  fourth  groups.    Their  compounds 
in  the  Body  are  merely  chemical  compounds,  requiring 
to  produce  them  no  higher  order  of  influence  than  that 
which  is  chemical  or  terrestrial. 

55.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  FIRST  TWO  GROUPS,  HOW- 
EVER, enter  into  compounds  that  cannot  be  produced 
except  under  vital  influences. 

56.  THE  REALLY  ACTIVE  VITAL  PROPERTIES  OR  CHAR- 
ACTERISTICS are  dependent  therefore  upon  not  more  than 
the  small  number  of  the  six  Elements  of  the  first  two 
groups,  combined  and  acting  under  appropriate  influ- 
ences. 


SECTION  II. 

Proximate  or  Organic  Elements  or  Principles. 

57.  THE  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  MAY  COMBINE,  by  vir- 
tue of  their  own  nature,  or  under  the  influence  of  the 
sun's  rays,  or  that  of  electricity ;  but  they  will  produce 
merely  chemical  compounds,  which  are  very  different 
from,  very  far  short  of,  vital  or  organic  compounds. 


50.  What  said  -?    51.  What  said  —  ?    52.  What  said  -?    5&  What  said  -f 
54.  What  -  f    55.  What  said  -  ?    56.  What  said  of  —  ?    57.  How  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF    ELEMENTS.  159 

58.  THE  EIGHT  KIND  AND  PROPORTION  of  the  chem- 
ical Elements  must  be  selected,  and  under  appropriate 
influences  they  must  combine  and  form  chemical  com- 
pounds ;  but  that  is  not  enough. 

59.  THE  CHEMICAL  COMPOUNDS  MUST  BE  SUBJECT  to 
a  vital  or  secretory  process,  that  will,  under  other  proper 
influences,  produce  a  different  kind  and  higher  order  of 
compound  than  chemistry  can  produce. 

60.  Illus. — SUGAR  is  COMPOSED  of  the  Elements  of  the  first  group, 
and  requires  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays  for  its  production ;  but  it  also 
requires  the  influence  of  secretion.     Those  Elements  never  will  combine 
to  produce  sugar,  unless  in  addition  to  all  other  influences  they  receive 
that  of  a  living  substance,  and  a  living  substance  peculiarly  and  nicely 
constituted. 

61.  Illus. — A  SMALL  BUD  is  taken  from  a  sweet-apple  tree,  and  in- 
oculated in  the  limb  of  a  sour  tree ;  both  continue  to  grow,  they  receive 
the  same  upward-moving  sap,  they  hang  in  the  same  air,  and  each  seems 
to  receive  the  same  Elements ;  but  each  possesses  its  own  peculiar  pow- 
er, one  producing  sweet,  and  the  other  acid,  fruit. 

62.  LIVING  SUBSTANCES  THEREFORE  POSSESS  a  secre- 
tory or  vital  power  of  compounding ;  and  if  the  right 
elements,  in  a  proper  condition,  come  under  that  influ- 
ence, and  other  influences  assist  the  process,  peculiar  and 
valuable  compounds  are  sure  to  be  produced. 

63.  VARIOUS  SUCH  COMPOUNDS  ARE  PRODUCED  BY 
PLANTS  AND  CALLED  Organic  or  Proximate  Elements,  or 
Principles,  because  it  is  from  them  that  the  animal  tissues 
and  fluids  are  chiefly  formed. 

64.  ORGANIC  DIFFER  FROM  CHEMICAL  COMPOUNDS  in 
several  respects,  but  in  one  very  important  particular. 

65.  CHEMICAL  COMPOUNDS  ARE  always  definite,  that 
is,  not  only  composed  of  the  same  Elements,  but  in  the 
same  proportions,  and  the  slightest  change  of  propor- 
tions changes  the  whole  character ;  so  that  the  Chemical 
compound  must  be  made  right,  or  not  made  at  all. 

66.  THE  ORGANIC  ELEMENT  is  ALWAYS  COMPOSED 


58,59.  To  what  —  ?      60.  How  —  ?      61.  What  said  —  ?     62.  What  do  —  ? 
83.  How  —  ?    64.  How  —  ?    65.  What  —  ?    66.  How  -  ? 


160  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

of  the  same  elements,  but  the  proportions  have  usually  a 
wide  limit,  and  the  quality  of  the  compound  may  range 
correspondingly. 

67.      Illus. — IF   AN   EGG   OB  A  CHICKEN  WERE  A  CHEMICAL  COMPOUND, 

they  would  always  be  the  same  thing ;  but  if  a  hen  be  fed  upon  com, 
the  yolks  of  her  eggs  will  be  a  bright  yellow,  and  have  a  good  flavor.  If 
she  be  fed  upon  flour,  the  yolks  will  be  pale  and  insipid.  If  fed  upon 
meat,  especially  such  as  worms,  fish,  grasshoppers,  &c.,  the  yolks  will  have 
a  very  deep  color,  and  very  fine,  rich  flavor.  In  either  case  a  chicken 
can  be  hatched,  but  it  cannot  be  possible  that  the  three  will  be  alike. 

68.  ORGANIC  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  SAME  KIND  WILL 
THEREFORE  VARY  very  much  in  quality ;  they  may  be 
called  by  the  same  name,  but  not  have  the  same  virtues. 

69.  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  COMPOUNDS  PRODUCED 
BY  PLANTS  will  be  determined  by  the  soil  in  which  they 
grow,  by  the  air  that  surrounds  them   and  the  water 
they  receive,  by  the  influences   derived  from  the  sun, 
and  by  the  character  of  the  plant  itself. 

70.  A  VERY  IMPORTANT  CHOICE  IS  THEREFORE  TO  BE 

MADE  in  the  selection  of  food,  for  it  is  not  to  be  supposed 
that  a  good  Body  can  be  composed  from  poor  material. 

Remark. — The  herbage  of  some  pastures  is  much  better  than  that 
of  others,  as  is  proved  by  pasturing  the  same  cows  in  both  ;  for  in  one 
case  they  yield  excellent  butter,  and  indifferently  good  in  the  other. 
Different  cows  also  produce  different  qualities  of  butter  and  milk  when 
fed  in  the  same  pasture ;  but  however  good  the  cows,  they  cannot  pro- 
duce good  milk  if  fed  upon  poor  pasturage.  They  will  also  produce 
cheese  differing  in  quality  according  to  their  food.  The  wool  of  sheep 
also  will  be  affected  in  quality  as  well  as  quantity  by  the  food  they  eat. 

71.  IT  MIGHT  BE  EXPECTED,  as  is  the  case,  that  the 
constitutions,  and  of  course  characteristics,  of  people, 
would  be  greatly  affected  by  all  the  influences  that  affect 
the  plants  upon  which  they  live,  such  as  soil,  air,  &c. 

Remark. — Wheat  differs  hi  its  character  in  different  lots  ;  so  do 
other  grains  and  parts  of  vegetables ;  so  do  meats :  and  it  must  not  be 
inferred,  because  articles  of  food  are  called  by  the  same  name,  that  they 
have  the  same  value.  All  articles  of  vegetable  or  animal  composition 


67.  What  —  ?    68.  How  —  ?    69.  What  said  -?    70.  What  -?    What  said  of 
food  of  animals?    71.  What  —  ?    What  said  of  wheat  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   ELEMENTS.  161 

will  vary  so  much  in  different  cases,  that  where  the  preservation  or 
restoration  of  health  is  of  great  importance,  and  very  difficult  to  accom- 
plish, the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  select  the  best  qualities  as  well 
as  kinds  of  food. 

72.  THE    ORGANIC    PRINCIPLES    COMPOUNDED    B^ 
PLANTS,  for  the  use  of  Man,  are  of  two  classes ;  those 
adapted  merely  to  produce  heat  (or  fatten),  and  those 
adapted  to  nourish  his  Body. 

73.  THE    ORGANIC  PRINCIPLES    ADAPTED   BY    THE 
PLANTS  FOR  CALORIFIC    PURPOSES   are    Starch,   Sugar, 
Gum,  Fat,  composed  of  the  Elements  of  the  first  group, 
in  different  proportions.     These,  compounded  under  the 
influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  store  up  or  condense,  so  to 
speak,  his   heat,  until  such  time  as  they  are   burned, 
when  they  give  out  merely  what  they  have  received. 

Remark. — The  Calorific  Organic  Principles  may  be,  and  in  some 
cases  are,  separated  from  other  parts  of  plants  in  which  they  grow, 
and  used  by  themselves,  or  mixed  with  other  articles ;  in  other  cases  they 
are  eaten  in  a  combined  state,  as  they  exist  in  the  plant,  when  they  will 
not  be  distinguished  by  the  ordinary  observer.  For  instance :  the  sap  of 
cane  is  expressed,  boiled  down,  and  sugar  obtained ;  starch  is  also  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  parts  of  potatoes,  corn,  wheat,  etc.,  and  used ;  or, 
the  grain  and  potatoes  are  cooked  and  eaten  in  the  form  of  bread,  etc., 
and  their  starch  is  eaten  with  their  other  components. 

74.  PLANTS   ALSO   COMPOUND,   principally  in  their 
seeds,  the  Organic  Principles  necessary  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses  of  nutrition  to   tissues   abounding  in  Nitrogen, 
Phosphorus,  Sulphur,  Oxygen,  Hydrogen,  and  Carbon. 
These  nutritive  Organic  Principles  also  are  compounded 
under  the  powerful  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  which  are 
stored  in  them  until  the  time  occurs  for  their  power  to 
be  exhibited.   These  are  able  to  receive  and  store  up  more 
than  the  sun's  heat ;  that  can  be  done  by  the  first  group 
of  Elements :  the  second  group  can  store  up  more,  viz., 
the  chemical  or  actinic  power ;  and  the  entire  nutritive 
Principle,  composed  of  both  the  first  and  second  groups, 


72.  What  said  of  —  ?    78.  What  said  —  ?    How  compounded?  How  are  calorific 
elements  used?    74.  What  do — ?    How  compounded? 


162  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

will  be  able  to  exhibit  heat  in  addition  to  other  power. 
It  therefore  may  be  expected,  as  is  the  fact,  that  when 
the  nutritive  Principles  are  decomposed  in  the  animal, 
they  will,  in  addition  to  the  peculiar  power  they  exert, 
either  produce  heat  or  supply  a  compound  that  can  by 
further  decomposition  exhibit  heat. 

Remark. — THE  NUTRITIVE  PRINCIPLES  MUST  EXIST  in  other  parts  be- 
sides the  seeds,  since  graminivorous  animals,  eating  only  the  herbage, 
supply  all  their  tissues  with  nutriment ;  but  they  eat  a  very  large  quan- 
tity of  food.  Granivorous  animals  eat  less  to  gain  the  same  nutriment, 
carnivorous  still  less. 

75.  UNFORTUNATELY  WE  DO  NOT  UNDERSTAND  the 
precise  nature  of  the  sun's  influence  upon  vegetable  con- 
struction ;  therefore  it  cannot  be  spoken  of  very  definite- 
ly, and  only  a  brief  and   unsatisfactory  statement  of 
leading  facts  can  be  given. 

76.  THE  NUTRITIVE  ELEMENTS  MUST  BE  COMBINEP 
under  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  since  the  plant 
cannot  alone  do  the  work ;  nor  can  it,  even  if  assisted  by 
chemical  influences,  combine  the  Elements  into  Organic 
Principles  without  the  sun's  aid :  therefore  the  power  of 
the  sun  may  be  said  to  be  represented  in  the  Principles 
that  are  indeed  compounds  of  Chemical  Elements  and 
chemical,  solar,  vegetable,  and  sometimes  animal,  influ- 
ences. 

77.  THE  VITAL  INFLUENCES  OF  A  PLANT  ARE  always 
constructive,  growing,  or  productive  of  growth,  while 
chemical  influences  are  either  constructive  or  destruc- 
tive, according  to  circumstances ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
strictly  speaking,  all  animal  processes   are  destructive. 
Secretion  is  truly  vegetable  in  its  character,  though  in 
the  animal  modified  by  nervous  influences  in  some  cases. 
Thus,  as  chemical  influences  reach  up  and  coact  in  the 
plant,  so  do  chemical  and  vegetable  reach  up  and  coact 
in  the  animal. 


Remark.  Where  -?     75.  What  -?     76.  How  -?     77.  How  -?     What  is 
gecretion  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF    ELEMENTS.  163 

78.  THE  PLANT  STOKES  UP  that  the  animal  may  de- 
stroy, as  it  must  destroy  itself  in  order  to  act.    Chemical 
influences  come  in  on  the  one  hand  to  assist  the  plant  in 
producing  or  compounding,  and  on  the  other  to  assist 
the  animal  in  destroying  or  decomposing.     The  action 
of  the  sun's  influence  is  also  compounding  in  the  plant ; 
it  promotes  the  vegetative  in  the  animal  as  well  as  in 
the  plant.     Hence  the  exposure  of  the  Body  to  the  influ- 
ences of  the  sun  is  essential  to  the  enjoyment  of  health, 
and  children  in  particular  should  be  caused  to  play  in 
the  full  light  of  the  sun,  since  they  are  growing,  and 
need  all  growing  influences. 

79.  THE  ANIMALS,  HOWEVER,  COMPLETE  THE  PROCESS 
begun  by  the  plant,  and  perfect  their  tissues  from  the 
Principles  furnished,  to  a  degree  beyond  what  the  plant 
can  do,  for  it  can  secrete  neither  muscular  nor  nervous 
tissue.     The  vegetative  process  in  the  animal  can  be,  if 
it  is  not  always,  influenced  by  the  nervous  tissue ;  for 
nothing  is  more  evident  than  that  the  eye  and  mouth 
water  under  mental  influences,  and  that  the  quality  of 
the  liquids  is  always  affected  by  the  existing  state  of  the 
mind. 

80.  WHILE  ON  THE  ONE  HAND  ANIMALS  cannot  begin 
to  compound  Elements  so  low  in  the  scale  as  plants  can, 
PLANTS  ON  THE  OTHER,  HAND  cannot  compound  to  so  high 
a  degree  as  animals ;   yet  the  plants  cannot  compound 
from  so  low  a  point  as  the  simple  elements.     Even  the 
plants  must  be  supplied  with  food,  that  is,  prepared  or 
compounded  Elements. 

81.  THE  PROCESS  OP  COMPOUNDING  THE  ELEMENTS 
MAY  BE  CLASSED  in  three  stages :  the  chemical,  the  vege- 
table, the  animal.     The  former  two  we  have  considered 
in  this  chapter;   the  third  will  be  most  appropriately 
treated  in  the  next  chapter,  in  connection  with  Tissues, 
to  which  we  will  now  advance. 


78.  Why  does  —  ?    What  said  of  sun's  influence?    79.  Do  —  ?    What  said  of 
mental  influence  ?    80.  What  said  of  —  ?    81.  How  —  ? 


CHAPTER  IL 

SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  PRINCIPLES  INTO  TISSUES. 

PROPERTIES. 
Introductory  Remarks. 

82.  IT  is  VERY  EASY  TO  DETERMINE  the  number  and 
characteristics  of  the  thirteen  Chemical  Elements  in  the 
Body,  and  of  the  Tissues  into  which  the  Elements  are 
compounded. 

83.  IT  is  ALSO  EASY  TO  CLASSIFY  the  influences  under 
which  the  compounding  takes  place :  they  are  chemical, 
vegetable,  and  animal,  of  which  the  first  can  operate 
alone,  and  the  first  and  second  together ;  or  the  second 
in  succession  to  the  firsthand  the  first,  second,  and  third 
together ;  or  the  third  in  succession  to  the  first  and  sec- 
ond together ;  or  the  third  in  succession  to  the  second, 
it  having  acted  in  succession  to  the  first ;  so  that  the 
first  must  always  act  before  or  when  the  second  does, 
and  the  first  and  second  before  or  when  the  third  does. 

84.  IT  is  EQUALLY  EASY  TO  CLASSIFY  the  compounds 
of  Elements  in  the  Body,  since  they  are,  1st,  merely 
chemical,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Water  and  Carbonic 
Acid,  contain  some  of  the  Elements  of  the  third  and 
fourth  groups,  and  are  useful  merely  in  the  passive  hard 
tissues  and  in  the  liquids ;  2d,  the  Calorific  or  Oleaginous, 
or  non-Nitrogenous  compounds  of  the  Elements  of  the 
last  group,  united  under  chemical  and  vegetable  influ- 
ences ;  3d,  the  albuminous,  nutritious,  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds of  the  first  group  of  Elements,  and  two  or  all 

82.  What  —  ?    88.  What—?    How  can  they  operate?    84.  What  —  ?    What 
are  they  ?    Name  the  thirteen  elements  in  groups. 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  165 

of  the  second,  united  under  chemical  and  vegetable  in- 
fluences, and  brought  to  the  highest  condition  by  animal 
influences.  In  addition  to  these  compounds,  the  simple 
Element,  oxygen,  of  the  first  group,  and  iron,  may  be 
mentioned  as  necessary  in  the  Body. 

85.     SUMMARY  or  CHEMICAL  COMPOUNDS  AND  PROX- 
IMATE PRINCIPLES  IN  THE  BODY  : 

C  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

Silica. 

J   Carbonate  of  Lime,  Soda,  and  Potassa. 
L  «   phosphate  of  Lime,  Magnesia,  Soda,  and  Potassa. 

Chloride  of  Sodium  and  Potassium. 
[  Water. 

(  Gum  { 

2d,  CALORIFIC  •]  Sugar.  3d,  ALBUMINOUS  J 

I  Fat"  Casein. 


4th,  EXCRETORY-* 


Carbonic  Acid. 

Urea. 

Bilin  verdin.        5th,  SIMPLE  ELEMENTS  j  Oxygen. 

Cholesterine.  used  in  the  Body        \  Iron. 

Lactic  acid. 

Creatin,  &c. 


86.  IT  is  VERY  DIFFICULT,  on  the  other  hand,  to  de- 
termine by  what  precise  steps  the  thirteen  simple  Ele- 
ments are  compounded  into  the  six  Tissues. 

87.  AN  EGG  THROWS  a  flood  of  light  on  this  intri- 
cate subject,  since  the  contents  of  the  shell  are  com- 
pounded into  all  the  tissues. 

88.  THE  MEAT  OF  AN  EGG  is  COMPOSED  of  one  form 
of  Albumen,  called  egg-albumen,  compounded  of  the 
Elements  of  the  first  and  second  groups  ;   a  portion  of 
calorific  fat,  compounded  of  the  Elements  of  the  second 
group ;  and  the  chemical  compounds,  including  elements 
of  the  third  and  fourth  groups,  and  combined  more  or 
less  intimately  with  the  albumen  and  fatty  matter. 

89.  IT  is  THEREFORE  CERTAIN  of  what  all  the  tissues 
can  be  composed,  and  through  what  form  the  Elements 

85.  Give  — .    Write  table.    86.  What  —  ?   87.  What  said  of  —  ?    88.  Of  what  —  ? 

6"9.  What  is  —  ? 


166  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

pass  in  one  stage  of  their  progress,  as  the  experiment  of 
forming  tissues  from  the  meat  of  the  egg  daily  takes 
place,  all  the  tissues  being  formed  from  it,  and  exactly 
all  of  it  being  used. 

90.  Now  rr  FOLLOWS  that  all  the  Elements  of  the 
tissues  must  exist  at  one  time,  in  their  course  of  devel- 
opment, in  the  form  of  albumen,  since  it  is  not  conceiva- 
ble that  the  tissues  can  be  formed  in  several  different 
ways. 

91.  AGAIN,  MILK  is  a  substance  by  which,  in  many 
instances,  all  the  food  of  the  creature  is  supplied,  and 
that  liquid  is  composed  of  albuminous  substances,  calo- 
rific fat  and  sugar,  and  chemical  compounds :   it  is,  in 
fact,  the  meat  of  an  egg  diluted  with  water,  and  enrich- 
ed by  sugar  and  more  fat. 

92.  IF   THE    PARTS    OF    PLANTS    USED    AS    NUTRITIOUS 

FOOD  ARE  EXAMINED,  they  will  also  be  found  composed 
in  part  of  albuminous  substances,  called  vegetable  albu- 
men, fibrin  (gluten),  and  casein  (cheese  or  curd). 

93.  ONE  OF  THE  FIRST  OPERATIONS  OF  DIGESTION  is 
to  change  the  vegetable  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein,  and 
also  the  animal  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein,  into  albu- 
minose ;  a  form  of  albumen  very  similar  in  all  respects, 
and  in  the  number  and  kind  of  its  Elements  precisely. 
like  the  egg-albumen. 

94.  IT  APPEARS,  therefore,  that  Albumen  is  a  com- 
pound or  station-point,  from  which  an  observer  may  look 
back  toward  the  simple  Elements,  and  forward  toward 
the  Tissues. 

95.  THE  PRECISE  STEPS  FROM  THE  SIMPLE  ELEMENTS 
TO  ALBUMEN,  or  from  it  to  the  Tissues,  are  not  well  un- 
derstood. 

96.  Bur  THE  ALBUMEN  AND  OTHER  CONTENTS  OF  THE 
EGG-SHELL  do  not  of  their  own  accord  assume  the  form 
of  the  tissues  of  the  chicken ;  the  contents  must,  in  the 


90.  What  —  ?    9L  What  -?    92.  What  —  ?     98.  What  Is  —  ?    94  What  ap- 
pears ?    95.  What  said  of  —  ?    96.  What  said  of — ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  167 

first  place,  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  100°,  and, 
in  the  second  place,  be  acted  on  by  a  minute  portion  of 
animal  tissue  already  appropriately  compounded. 

97.  THE  CHEMICAL  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  HEAT  WITH 

THE    ANIMAL    INFLUENCE     OF    THE    TISSUE  will  SOOU  begin 

to  work  like  leaven,  and  first  one  variety  of  tissue  and 
then  another  will  start  into  existence,  each  also  growing 
by  additions  to  itself,  till  all  the  varieties  of  Tissue  are 
formed  in  proper  proportions,  and  all  the  contents  of 
the  shell  are  changed  into  tissues,  and  a  perfect  chicken 
appears. 

98.  IF    THE    CHARACTER    OF   THE  MINUTE  PORTION-  OF 
TISSUE    IN   THE    EGG    BE    EXAMINED,    it    will    afford   much 

instruction  upon  the  important  subject  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  tissues. 

99.  IF  AN   EGG-SHELL   BE    CAREFULLY  CUT    OPEN,  the 

yolk  will  be  seen  suspended,  so  that  a  very  easily  dis- 
cerned spot  upon  its  surface  is  always  uppermost. 

100.  IF  THIS  SPOT  IS  EXAMINED  WITH  A  MICROSCOPE, 

, 

a  minute  cell  or  sac  will  be  found,  formed  of  an  albumin- 
oid substance  as  thin  as  that  of  the  thinnest  soap-bubble, 
and  called  homogeneous,  viz.,  alike  in  its  character 
throughout. 

101.  THE  CELL  CONTAINS  a  liquid  substance,  in  the 
midst  of  which  float  minute,  irregular  collections  of  mat- 
ter called  granules ;  of  what,  or  how,  they  are  composed, 
is  not  certain. 

102.  THE   SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  WALLS  OF  THE    CELL  IS 

of  such  a  nature,  that  materials  can  pass  into  and  out 
from  the  cell  very  freely,  the  substance- wall  of  the  cell 
having  very  little  tenacity,  and  seeming  to  serve  its 
purpose  by  surrounding  its  contents  rather  than  by  en- 
closing them. 

103.  AT    ONE     OR    MORE    POINTS    IN    THE    WALLS    OF 

SUCH  CELLS  there  is  a  peculiar   construction  called  its 


97.  What  said  of  —  ?   98.  What  if  —  ?   99.  What  —  ?   100.  What  —  ?  101.  What 
does  —  ?    102.  What  is  —  ?    108.  What  is  —  ? 


168  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

nucleus,  from  which  the  granules  appear  to  take  their 
rise  in  some  cases,  and  in  others  from  which  new  cells 
spring  up. 

104.  IN   SOME    INSTANCES    THE     GRANULES     DEVELOP 

into  new  cells,  and  in  some  they  become  arranged  in  the 
form  of  fibres. 

105.  THUS  THE  EARLIEST  APPEARANCES  IN  THE  FOR- 

MATION OF  TISSUES  ARE  the  formation  of  granules,  fibres, 
and  membrane,  in  a  homogeneous  Fluid  containing  the 
proximate  principles  essential  to  the  constitution  of  the 
Tissues. 

(  Homogeneous  Liquid. 


Homogeneous  Membrane. 

106.  THE     IMMEDIATE     CAUSE     OF     THESE     PRIMARY 

FORMATIONS  is  the  influence  of  the  previously  formed 
membrane  constituting  the  walls  of  the  cell,  without 
which  the  homogeneous  fluid  can  never  be  developed 
into  tissue. 

107.  ALL  LIVING  THINGS,  WHETHER  VEGETABLE  OR 
ANIMAL,  take  their  rise  from  such  a  cell  :  its  components 
in  that  form  and  condition  have  the  power  of  communi- 
cating to  other  similar  material  the  power  they  them- 
selves possess,  with  such  modifications  as  the  exigency 
requires. 

108.  THE  CELLS  HAVE  TWO  POWERS  :   1st,  that  of 
forming  themselves  from  the  appropriate  materials,  and 
2d,  that  of  modifying  their  contents,  each  of  which  is 
called  the  power  of  secreting,  though,  as  they  differ  in 
their  character,  they  should  be  called  by  different  names  ; 
and  in  this  work  the  former  will  be  called  nourishing, 
and  the  latter  secreting. 

109.  IT  is  ALSO  REMARKABLE  that  the  parent-cells 
will  bestow  upon  their  offspring  the  power  of  secreting 


104.  What  do  -?    105.  What  —  ?    Write  table.    106.  What  —  ?    107.  What 
Mid  —  ?    108.  What  —  ?    109.  What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES. 

substances  different  from  those  the  parent-cells 
selves  could  secrete. 
FIG.  117. 


169 
them- 


FIG.  118. 


FIG.  119. 


Fig.  117  represents  a  portion  of  the  fluid  chyle,  in  which  are  exhibited 
minute  granules  and  larger  globules,  some  of  them  appearing  like,  and 
doubtless  being,  cells. 

Fig.  118,  the  same,  after  the  addition  of  acetic  acid. 

Fig.  119  represents,/,  the  developing  blood-cells  of  a  Fish  (Haddock) ; 
r,  those  of  a  Reptile  (Frog) ;  b,  those  of  a  Bird  (Turkey). 

Fig.  120,  the  same  as  the  previous,  after  the  addition  of  acetic  acid. 

Fig.  121,  cells  from  spleen.  In  some  the  nucleus  is  seen  dividing,  in 
others  it  is  divided,  and  again  subdivided.  The  process  is  still  better 
seen  in 

Fig.  122,  representing  the  white  blood-cells  undergoing  changes,  and 
their  nuclei  getting  ready  to  form  new  cells.  Still  further  representations 
of  cells  are  given  on  the  next  pages. 

110.  IT  is  NOT  KNOWN  upon  what  modification  the 
power  of  secreting  the  different  contents  of  different 
cells  depends ;  their  walls  seem  to  be  alike,  but  are  dif- 
ferent in  different  cases. 


Describe  Fig.  117.     Fig.  118. 
110.  What— ? 

8 


Fig.  119.      Fig.  120.      Fig.  121.      Fig.   122. 


170  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

SECTION  I. 

Secretory  Tissue. 

111.  SECRETORY  TISSUE  MAY  THEREFORE  BE  DEFIN- 
ED as  a  homogeneous  albuminoid  substance  or  membrane, 
compounded  of  the  Elements  of  the  first  and  second 
groups,  under  the  influence  of  secretory  tissue  previously 
existing. 

112.  VEGETABLE  AND  ANIMAL  SECRETORY  TISSUE 
have  the  same  general  appearance  and  constitution. 

113.  SECRETORY    TISSUE    EXHIBITS    three    general 
forms :  1st,  the  extended  or  sheet-like,  when  it  is  called 
basement  membrane  /  2d,  the  tubular  /  and  3d,  the  cellu- 
lar. 

C  Basement  Membrane. 
SECRETORY  TISSUE  -j  Tubular. 
(  Cellular. 

FIG.  123. 


Fig.  123  is  a  beautiful  plan  of  cells,  1,  resting  on  abasement  membrane, 
2,  beneath  which  is  the  fibrous  layer,  3,  containing  the  blood  tubes,  4, 
The  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  side  of  the  cell  is  its  nucleus.  (For  tubular 
form  of  membrane,  see  i,  Fig.  137.) 

114.  THE  CELLULAR  FORM  OF  SECRETORY  TISSUE 
EXHIBITS  numerous  varieties,  each  of  which  changes  its 
form  more  or  less,  according  to  circumstances,  such  as 
pressure,  etc.     Whether  the  form  of  the  cells  has  any- 
thing to  do  with  the  peculiar  character  of  the  secretion 
formed  by  them,  is  not  known ;  it  probably  has,  since 
each  different  substance  is  secreted  by  a  cell  of  a  pecu- 
liar form. 

115.  THE  MOST  CONSPICUOUS  CELLS  ARE,   1st,   the 

111  How  — ?  112.  What  said  -?  118.  What  does  -?  Write  table.  Describe 
Fig.  123.  114.  What  docs  -  ?  115.  What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES. 


171 


Blood  and  Lymph  cells  (the  red  and  white  Blood-cells), 
Fig.  110;  2d,  the  cells  of  the  external  skin  (the  cuticle), 
called  the  cuticular  cells,  Fig.  109;  3d,  the  cells  of  the 
surface  of  the  air  and  food  passages,  secreting  mucus, 
hence  called  mucus  cells,  also  epithelial  cells,  Figs.  88, 
77 ;  some  of  them  are  furnished  with  cilia,  and  are  called 
ciliated  cells ;  4th,  the  cells  of  all  the  surfaces  of  all  the 
organs  moving  against  each  other,  secreting  serum, 
hence  called  serous  cells,  also  called  pavement  or  tessel- 
lated cells.  Others  of  minor  importance  will  be  noticed 
in  connection  with  the  organs  to  which  they  belong. 

FIG.  124.  FIG.  125.  FIG.  126. 


Describe  Fig.  124, 125, 126.    Describe  Fig.  127.    Describe  the  Figures  from  12S 
to  185, 


DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 
FlG.  133.  FIG.  134. 


Fio.  135, 


Figs.  124  and  125  represent  highly  magnified  portions  of  milk;  their 
granules,  globules,  and  cells,  being  very  apparent.  "  Fig.  126,  Blood-cells 
differing  in  appearance  according  to  their  position ;  there  are  two  white 
ones.  Fig.  127,  portion  of  chyle  of  dog,  showing  granules,  globules,  and 
cells,  some  with  fibrous  appearance.  Figs.  128  to  135,  differently  formed 
cells,  dividing  in  132,  extending  into  fibres  in  131,  uniting  to  form  capilla- 
ries in  134,  or  arranged,  as  in  135,  to  form  an  arterial  tube.  (See  p.  171.) 

116.  IT  is  EVIDENT  that  the  amount  of  substance 
that  can  be  secreted  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of 
secretory  tissue  concerned. 

117.  WHEN  A  LARGE  AMOUNT  OF  SUBSTANCE  MUST 
BE  SECEETED,  it  will  be  necessary  to  correspondingly 
increase  the  amount  of  secretory  tissue ;  and  if  the  space 
allowable  is  not  sufficient  to  spread  out  the  membrane, 
it  must  be  formed  into  tubes  or  into  cells,  by  which  a 
greater  amount  can  be  packed  in  a  given  cubical  space. 

118.  IF    THE    CELLULAR    FORM    RESTING    ON    AN    EX- 
TENDED SURFACE  is  NOT  SUFFICIENT,  as  it  is  in  case  of 
the  general,  cuticular,  mucus,  and  serous  surfaces,  the 
amount  of  secretory  tissue  in  a  given  space  can  be  in- 
creased by  making  the  surface  on  which  the  cells  rest 
uneven,  raising  it  in  ridges  or  sinking  it  in  grooves,  or 
raising  it  in  papillae  or  burrowing  it  into  the  form  of 
tubes,  with  branches  and  pouches  on  the  sides  of  them, 


Describe  Figs.  110, 109,  88,  7T,  in  respect  to  cells.    116.  What  —  ?    117.  What 
necessary—  f    118.  What—? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES. 


173 


the  whole  of  these  covered  or  lined  with  appropriate 
cells.    Fig.  88. 

FIG.  136. 

I 


Fig.  136  is  a  rude  plan  of  the  same  parts  as  in  123.  a,  Basement  mem- 
brane ;  b,  cells ;  c,  fibrous  under-structure ;  all  as  in  an  extended  mem- 
brane, without  indentations  or  eminences. 


Fig.  137  represents  the  same,  forming  a  short  tube  at  g,  a  pouch,  crypta 
or  follicle  at  h,  and  a  coiled  long  tube  at  i. 

FIG.  138. 


Fig.  138  represents,  by  a  rude  plan,  different  modes  of  increasing  sur- 
face, &  and  I  being  simple  follicles,  with  sides  a  little  corrugated.  At  o  is 
the  outlet  to  three  like  I,  while  m  is  the  common  outlet  of  many,  or  of  a 
racemose  gland.  At  D  there  is  a  common  outlet  of  many  tubes,  or  of  a 
tubular  gland.  I  is,  in  fact,  a  simple  gland. 

119.     GLAND  is  the  name  given  to  any  means  taken 
for  increasing  the  number  of  cells  in  a  given  space. 


Describe  Fig.  88  in  reference  to  surface. 
119.  What  is  a— f 


Describe  Fig.  136.    Fig.  137.    Fig.  138. 


174  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

Glands  are  called  simple  or  compound,  according  as  they 
are  simple  tubes,  or  branched  (racemose)  with  clusters 
of  little  pouches  (cryptae  or  follicles)  about  them. 

120.  THE  CELLS  OF  ALL  THE  SURFACES  and  of  the 
Glands  proper  have  beneath  them  a  layer  of  basement 
membrane,  from  the  nuclei  of  which  the  cells  take  their 
rise. 

121.  THE  MODE  OF  CELLULAR  GROWTH  AND  ACTION 

is  this :  the  cells  take  their  origin  from  the  nuclei  of  the 
basement  membrane,  and  enlarge  to  maturity,  at  the 
same  time  filling  themselves  with  their  appropriate 
secretion  ;  when  mature,  they  are  loosened  from  the 
nuclear  spot,  and  if  at  the  surface,  they  break  or  dis- 
solve away,  yielding  their  contents  to  fulfil  thfeir  pur- 
pose ;  if  not  at  the  surface,  they  are  crowded  up  by  those 
growing  beneath  them,  and  either  dissolve,  as  in  some 
cases,  or,  drying,  fall  off  as  scales,  as  in  case  of  the  skin. 

122.  THUS  SUCCESSIVE  CROPS  OF  CELLS  ARE  GROWING 
in  contact  with  the  basement  membrane,  and  successive- 
ly wasting  away  in  the  very  act  of  fulfilling  their  office. 

SECTION  II. 
Muscular  Tissue. 

123.  MUSCULAR  TISSUE  is  another  form  of  Secretory 
Tissue,  having-  peculiarities  very  distinguishing. 

124.  MUSCULAR  TISSUE  is  IN  THE  FORM  OF  cells,  the 
walls  of  which  are  to  appearance  constituted  of  the  same 
albuminoid  Elements  as  those  of  other  kinds  of  cells ; 
their  contents  have  a  jelly-like  appearance.   (See  Fig. 78.) 

Remark. — Muscular  Tissue  is  sometimes  described  as  composed  of 
tubes,  as  if  the  ends  of  the  cells  had  broken  down,  allowing  all  in  one 
filament  to  form  one  continuous  tube. 

125.  THE  MUSCULAR  CELLS  ARE  PECULIAR  in  this, 
that  they  have  no  relation  to  basement  membrane  for 
their  production. 


120.  What  beneath  -?    121.  What  —  ?    122.  What  said  -?    123.  What  —  f 
124.  What  — ?    125.  How— ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES.  175 

126.  THE  MUSCLE-CELLS  ARE  ESPECIALLY  DIFFERENT 
FROM  THOSE  OF  THE  SECRETORY  TISSUE  proper  in  this, 
that  the  substance  secreted  in  them  is  not  of  use  in  the 
form  in  which  it  is  secreted,  but  only  when  it  is  decom- 
posed and  destroyed  as  muscular  tissue. 

127.  MUSCULAR  TISSUE  is  PASSIVE  while  it  remains 
muscular  tissue,  and  as  soon  as  it  becomes  active  it 
changes,  for  it  is  the  change  that  produces  the  power  of 
activity  or  contraction.       t 

128.  SUCH  TISSUE  is  NOT  produced  by  the  plant,  nor 
can  it  be ;  it  is  the  province  of  the  animal  to  exhibit  the 
power  developed  by  the  plant,  and  to  decompose  what 
the  plant  has  compounded. 

129.  THE  CONTENTS  OF  THE  MUSCLE-CELL  exhibit  all 
the  six  elements  of  the  first  two  groups ;  but  whether 
the  walls  of  the  cell  can  secrete  their  contents  from  the 
albumen  of  the  blood  directly,  or  whether  it  is  necessary 
that  the  albumen  should  undergo  some  process  of  pre- 
paration, is  not  known ;  but  the  latter  is  probably  true. 

130.  THERE  ARE  TWO  FORMS  OF  MUSCLE-CELLS,  that 
of  the  striated  and  that  of  the  non-striated.     In  the 
former  the  cells  are  bead-shaped,  and  arranged  end  to 
end  (see  Fig.  78) ;  in  the  latter  case  the  cells  ta^er  at 
each  end,  and  are  sometimes  found  single  and  sometimes 
clustered  without  regularity. 

131.  THE  USE  OF  THE  MUSCLE-CELLS  is  to  contract. 
How  the  efiect  is  accomplished  is  not  known,  nor  is  the 
rationale  of  the  act  even  conjectured.     It  is  certain  that 
each   contraction   is    attended    with    a    corresponding 
amount  of  decomposition  of  muscular  secretion,  to  be 
renewed  only  by  a  corresponding  amount  of  substance 
eaten. 

132.  IT  is  ALSO  CERTAIN  that  there  is  no  other  power 
so  economically  used  as  the  power  of  the  muscle-cells. 

133.  IF  THE  SOURCE  OF  THIS  POWER  IS  TRACED  BACK 


126.  How  -?     127.  When  -?      128    What    said  —  ?    129   What  said  -? 
130.  What  -  ?  Describe  Fig.  78.    131.  What  — «  132.  What-  ?  133.  What  said—? 


176 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


it  will  be  found  to  be  drawn  from  the  rays  of  the  sun 
that  were  condensed  by  the  plant  in  its  albuminized 
products. 

SECTION  III. 

Nervous  Tissue. 

134.  NERVOUS  TISSUE  is  of  two  kinds,  the  gray, 
cellular,   ganglionic,  central  or  active,  and  the  white, 
fibrous,  tubular,  or  passive  parts. 

135.  THE  GRAY  NERVOUS  is  one  form  of  secretory, 
but  diifers  from  it  in  the  same  general  respects  as  the 
muscle-cells. 

136.  THE  GRAY  TISSUE  DIFFERS  by  not  having  any 
relations  to  a  basement  membrane,  and  by,  secreting  a 
substance  that  is  not  of  use  until  it  is  decomposed,  and 
because  its  use  is  destructive,  or  the  result  of  destruction. 

137.  THE  GRAY  TISSUE  is  COMPOSED  of  cells,  with 
walls  constituted  like  all  cells,  filled  with  a  jelly-like 
granular  substance,  and  also  surrounded  by  a  similar 
substance,  in  which  the  cells  seem  to  be  very  thickly 
imbedded. 


FIG.  139. 


Fig.  139  represents  nervous  tissue :  1,  two  large  cells  continuous  with 
nerve  filaments  ;  3,  undeveloped  cells  with  nuclei;  2  and  4,  a  chain  of  cells 
connected  by  filament;  B,  nerve-cells  much  enlarged,  showing  nucleus, its 
spot,  the  granules,  and  one  extending  point  or  pole  in  case  of  the  largest 
cell ;  a  a,  filaments  of  white  nervous  tissue. 


184.  Of  what  kinds  —  ? 
Describe  Fig.  189. 


185.  What  —  ?     186.  How  dues  —  ?    187.  How  — 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  177 

138.  THE  CELLS  SEEM  TO  GROW  from  the  granules, 
and  as  they  reach  maturity  portions  of  the  walls  elongate 
and  become  continuous  with  the  filaments  of  white  tis- 
sue constituting  the  nerves  or  commissures. 

139.  THE  CONTENTS  OF  THE  CELLS,  as  well  as  the 
substance  in  which  they  are  imbedded,  is  constituted  of 
the  six  Elements  of  the  first  two  groups,  the  proportion 
of  phosphorus  being  larger  than  in  any  other  tissue. 

140.  IF  THE  NERVOUS  MATERIALS  ARE  TRACED  BACK, 

it  will  be  found  that  the  powers  that  Nervous  Tissue  can 
exhibit  are  condensed  by  the  plant  under  the  influence  of 
the  sun's  rays,  in  the  albuminoid  products  of  the  plant, 
and  that  the  power  of  the  nervous  cells  is  a  representative 
of  so  much  power  as  the  plants  have  stored,  and  no  more. 

141.  ALL  POWER  THAT  CAN  BE  MANIFESTED  BY  THE 
NERVOUS  CELLS  is  exhausted  when  their  substance  is  de- 
composed, which  must  be  replaced  from  food  eaten,  con- 
taining the  appropriate  Elements  properly  prepared. 

142.  IT  is  NOT  PROBABLE  that  the  nerve-cells  can 
secrete  their  important  contents  directly  from  the  albu- 
men of  the  Blood,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  is  wrought  up 
to  a  certain  degree  before  the  nervous  Tissue  performs 
upon  its  Elements  the  finishing  secretion  that  endows 
them  with  the  highest  and  most  wonderful  power  that 
matter  is  ever  capable  of  exhibiting,  and  enables  them  to 
fulfil  duties  most  intensely  important  to  human  welfare. 

143.  WHETHER  THE  SUBSTANCE  ABOUT  THE  CELLS  is 
aifected  by  them  or  not,  is  not  known ;  the  probabilities 
favor  the  idea  that  it  is. 

144.  THE  WHITE  NERVOUS  TISSUE  does  not  exhibit 
the  cellular  arrangement  (though  originally  constituted 
from  cells),  nor  is  it  necessary  that  it  should,  as  its  office 
is  passive  so  far  as  it  is  understood,  having  merely  to 
communicate   the    influences    that    originate   at   either 
extremity  of  the  fibres  that  it  constitutes. 

138.  How  do  —  ?    139.  What  said  of  —  ?     140.  What  —  ?    141.  What  said  —  ? 
142.  What  —  ?    143.  What  said  of  —  ?    144.  What  said  —  ? 

8* 


178 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


SECTION  IV. 
Sinewy   Tissues. 

145.  SINEWY  TISSUE  EXISTS  in  the  form  of  minute 
threads  or  fibres,  and  hence  is  usually  called  fibrous  tis- 
sue ;  but  as  other  tissues  assume  a  fibrous  structure,  and 
as  the  character  of  sinews  which  are  composed  of  this 
tissue  is  well  known,  the  above  name  is  much  the  best. 

146.  SINEWY  TISSUE  is  CONSIDERED  under  two  heads, 
that  of  the  white  or  inelastic,  and  the  yellow  or  elastic. 

147.  WHITE  SINEWY  TISSUE  gathers  its  fibres  into 
small  bundles,  or  into  bands  more  or  less  extended,  the 
fibres  of  which  adhere  so  closely  that  it  is  difficult  to 
separate  them.     They  are  exceedingly  strong,  flexible, 
and  inelastic,  and  therefore  well  adapted  for  use  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  Body,  which  is,  in  fact,  largely  com- 
posed of  them,  arranged  in  various  forms  or  textures. 

FIG.  141. 
FIG.  140. 


Fig.  140  represents  a  portion  of  Sinewy  Tissue  with  its  fibres  pulled  apart ; 
Fig.  141,  the  same,  surrounding  spaces  from  which  the  natural  contents  have 
been  dissolved.  In  both  figures  the  tissue  is  very  much  magnified. 


145    How  does  —  ? 
Fig  111 


146.  How—?     147.  What  said  —  ?     Describe  Fig.  140. 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF  TISSUES. 


179 


148,  YELLOW  SINEWY  TISSUE  is  also  very  strong, 
but  it  is  likewise  elastic ;  its  fibres  do  not  lie  parallel 
to  each  other,  but  are  branching,  curled,  and  irregular. 
It  exists  by  itself  in  only  a  few  places  in  the  Body,  but 
in  many  it  is  mixed  with  the  white. 

FIG.  142,  FIG.  143,  FIG.  142.1 


Fig.  142  represents  two  portions  of  highly  magnified  Yellow  Tissue, 
differing  in  size  of  fibres. 

Fig.  143  represents  the  same,  around  the  air-cells  of  the  Lungs.  By 
its  action  the  air  is  expelled  at  each  breath,  and  at  each  inhalation  it  must 
be  overcome  by  the  internal  pressure  of  the  air.  The  perfection  of  breath- 
ing, therefore,  is  chiefly  dependent  on  this  tissue. 

149.  THE  TWO  TISSUES  SEPARATE  OR  TOGETHER  ARE 
WROUGHT  into   many  different   forms   or   textures — of 
Ligaments,  Tendons,  Membranes,  Fascia,  Areolar  Tex- 
ture, etc. 

150.  IN   LIGAMENTS   THE   TISSUE  is  ARRANGED  in 
cords,  bands,   or  caps,  extending   between'  or   around 
parts  that  are  fastened  together,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
bones.     The  fibres  lie  nearly  parallel,  or  are  braided  to- 
gether, as  may  be  required. 

151.  TENDONS  ARE  LIKE  ligaments,  except  that  at 
one  or  both  extremities  they  are  attached  to  muscular 
fibres,  which  makes  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  fibres 
of  the  tendon  necessary  where  they  unite  with  the  mus- 


148.  What  — ?   Describe  Fig.  142.  Describe  Fig.  143.  149.  How  are— ?  150.  How 
is—?    151.  What  — ? 


180 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


cular  part.     The  cords  on  the  back  of  the  hands  are 
examples. 

FIG.  144. 


Fig.  144  represents  both  Ligaments  and  Tendons,  the  former  binding 
the  latter  in  their  places.  2,  3,  4,  tendons;  5,  6,  muscles;  1,  finger-bone. 
The  tendons  can  be  noticed  extending  into  and  blending  with  the  muscular 
part.  A  muscle  is  said  to  be  composed  of  its  muscular  part  and  its  ten- 
don ;  an  expression  that  seems  contradictory,  but  it  is  not  so  in  intention. 

152.  MEMBRANES  are  of  two  classes,  the  dense  and 
open.     The  only  difference  consists  in  the  distance  of 
the  fibres  apart. 

153.  IN  MEMBRANES  THE  FIBRES  ARE  INTERWOVEN 
in  every  direction,  leaving  larger  or  smaller  meshes  be- 
tween them  to  be  occupied  with  other  parts.     In  some 
instances  the  meshes  are  very  few  and  small,  in  other 
cases  they  are  large  and  numerous. 

FIG.  145. 

Fig.  145  represents 
one  form  of  membrane 
woven  from  White  tis- 
sue in  narrow  bands, 
and  Yellow  Tissue  in 
fibres.  A  few  fat-cells 
in  a  row  and  in  a  clus- 
ter are  shown.  The 
meshes  of  different 
membranes  vary  very 
much  in  form  and 
size. 

154.  THE  SKIN  is  composed  of  an  external  layer  of 
cellular  tissue  called  cuticle,  beneath  which  it  is  chiefly 
composed  of  Sinewy  Tissue,  the  meshes  of  which   are 


Describe  Fig.  144 
154.  What  said  — ? 


152.  What    said  —  ?     158.  How  —  ?     Describe  Fig.   145. 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  181 

very  fine    near  the  cellular  surface,  but   which   grow 
larger  and  more  numerous  lower  down. 

155.  Illus.  —  The  fine  surface  of  a  kid  glove  and  the  openness  of 
the  inner  side  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  structure  of  such  a  mem- 
brane. The  membrane  at  the  surface  of  any  bone  can  be  peeled  off 
and  show  the  character  of  a  dense  membrane. 

156.  FASCIA   ARE   «ierely   dense   membranes   of  a 
sheath-like  form,  performing  special  purposes. 

157.  AREOLAR  OR  CONNECTIVE  TEXTURE  (also  called 
tissue  and  cellular)  is  merely  Sinewy  Tissue  in  the  form 
of  bands  of  small  or   considerable  width,  intersecting 
each  other  in  every  direction  so  as  to  form  spaces  of 
very  small  or  considerable  size  if  they  should  be  dis- 
tended.     These   spaces   are   usually  merely  moistened 
with  serum,  but  sometimes  it  collects,  producing  one 
form  of  dropsy.     They  can  be  distended  with  air,  when 
it  will  be  found  that  the  air  will  creep  from  one  space  to 
another  till  all  parts  of  the  body  will  be  distended. 

FIG.  146. 

Fig.  146  represents  a 
small  portion  of  one  form 
of  Areolar  texture,  with 
its  spaces  distended  and 
communicating.  They 
evidently  vary  in  size, 
and  may  be  as  small  as 
a  mustard-seed,  or  as 
large  as  an  egg.  As 
usually  found,  the  sides 
of  these  spaces  touch. 


158.  Illus.  —  BUTCHERS  sometimes  introduce  one  end  of  a  pipe  into 
a  piece  of  meat,  and  blow  air  through  the  pipe  into  the  areolar  texture 
of  the  meat,  and  give  it  an  appearance  of  being  fat. 

159.  Illus.  —  In  Paris,  a  child  with  an  enormous  head  was  exhibited 
to  excite  compassion  and  obtain  charities.     The  parents,  being  question- 
ed by  the  authorities,  confessed  that  they  had  tied  a  bandage  around 
the  child's  head  to  prevent  the  air  from  passing  below  it,  and  made  an 


155.  Illustrate  membrane.    156.  What  — ?    157.  What  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  146. 
158.  What  said  —  ?    159.  What  exhibited  in  Paris  ? 


I 

182  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

opening  through  the  skin  above,  introduced  the  end  of  a  pipe,  and  forced 
in  air  from  time  to  time,  gradually  distending  the  skin  to  a  wonderful 
degree. 

Remark. — Sometimes  the  chest  is  injured  in  such  a  manner  that  a 
communication  is  established  between  a  lung  and  the  areolar  texture, 
in  part  constituting  the  walls  of  the  chest ;  at  each  respiration,  a  little 
air  will  be  forced  into  the  areolar  texture,  until,  in  some  cases,  that  of 
the  whole  body  will  be  distended,  producing  a  very  grotesque  appear- 
ance. As  soon  as  the  passage  of  the  air  from  the  lung  is  checked,  that 
which  is  hi  the  areolar  texture  will  be  absorbed  by  the  Blood,  and  the 
distension  will  diminish  as  rapidly  as  it  was  produced,  without  causing 
any  unpleasant  consequences  to  the  injured  person,  thus  showing  the 
inert  or  passive  character  of  the  areolar  or  connective  texture. 

160.  IT  THUS  APPEARS  that*  the   Areolar  texture 
loosely  connects  and  binds  together  all  parts   of  the 
Body,  and  exists  from  head  to  foot ;  and  it  will  be  found 
that  as  we  go  through  the  skin  its  meshes  increase  till 
they  become  those  of  the  Areolar  texture. 

161.  THE  SINEWY  TISSUE  ALSO  EXISTS  as  a  part  of 
the  two  tissues  next  to  be  mentioned. 

162.  THE  SINEWY  TEXTURES  ARE  COMPOSED  wholly 
of  white  or  wholly  of  yellow,  or  of  both,  in  varying 
proportions. 

163.  Ittus. — At  the  knuckles  the  skin  is  composed  mostly  and  at 
the  elbow  almost  wholly  of  Yellow,  while  on  the  front  of  the  arm  the 
skin  is  chiefly  composed  of  White,  Tissue. 

164.  IT  is  EVIDENT  that  a  large  amount  of  Sinewy 
Tissue  will  be  required  in  the  Body ;  and  in  fact  more 
than  one  half  of  its  entire  weight  is  composed  of  this 
tissue,  so  that  some  authors  have  described  the  Body  as 
being  composed  of  Sinewy  Tissue  wrought  with  a  mul- 
titude of  meshes  of  various  forms,  in  which  .the  other 
parts  were  packed ;  and  indeed,  if  all  the  other  tissues 
could  be  dissolved  out,  the  form  and  size  of  every  organ 
would  yet  remain  fully  represented  by  the  Sinewy  Tis- 
sue, so  much  is  it  the  framework  of  every  part. 


160.  What  —  ?    161.  Where  does  -?    162.  How  -?    163.  How  knuckles  and 
elbow  composed?    164.  What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  183 

165.  THE  SINEWY  TISSUE  is  EVIDENTLY  a  passive 
tissue,  and  does  not  require  the  elementary  constitution 
of  the  active  tissues.  * 

166.  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SINEWY  TISSUES  SHOWS  that 
they  are  entirely  wanting  in  phosphorus,  and  have  but  a 
very  little  sulphur  and  an  inferior  proportion  of  nitrogen. 

167.  THE  WHITE  AND  THE  YELLOW  DIFFER  in  the 
arrangement  of  their  elements,  since  from  the  former 
Gelatine  can  be  obtained,  but  not  from  the  latter ;  there 
is  also  a  difference  in  the  proportions  of  their  elements. 

168.  WHEN  THE  WHITE  TISSUE  is  BOILED  awhile  in 
hot  water  it  is  dissolved,  and  upon  cooling  forms  a  jelly 
called  gelatine,  or  gluten  technically,  or  glue  in  com- 
merce. 

169.  THIS  SUBSTANCE,  GELATINE,  is  never  found  in 
the  blood,  though  it  is  eaten  as  food,  and  is  the  com- 
ponent of  the  larger  part  of  the  Body. 

1 70.  THE  FACT  MENTIONED  SHOWS  that  Gelatine  must 
Be  formed  from  the  Blood  by  the  Tissue  in  the  very  act 
of  its  formation;   that  the  Gelatine  decomposes  when 
it  goes  back  from  the  tissue  into  the  Blood ;  and  that 
the  Gelatine  eaten  must  serve  some  other  purpose  than 
nourishing  any  tissue,  for  it  has  the  Elements  of  no 
other  but  the  sinewy ;  therefore  it  must  be  useful  only 
in  producing  heat,  to  which  purpose  also  the  decompos- 
ing sinewy  Tissue  can  be  applied. 

171.  THE  SINEWY  TISSUE  is  CONSTITUTED  IN  PART 
of  Nitrogen,  and  therefore  it  must  be  obtained  from 
some  part  of  the  food  that  contains  Nitrogen ;  and  as  in 
the  chicken  it  must  have  been  obtained  from  the  albu- 
men, so  it  must  be  at  all  times;    but  through  what 
changes  the  albumen  passes,  to  free  it  of  phosphorus 
and  a  part  of  its  sulphur  and  nitrogen,  is  not  known. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  fibrin  of  the  Blood  is  one  stage 
in  the  process  of  forming  sinewy  tissue.     It  may  also 

165.  What  — ?    166.  What  eaid  of  —  ?    16T.  How  do  —  ?    168.  What  effect  — ? 
169.  What  said  —  ?    170.  What  does  —  ?    171.  How  —  ? 


184  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

be  formed,  as  some  think,  from  the  decomposing  active 
tissues  that  were  formed  from  albumen. 

172.  %NEWY  TISSUE  is  PRODUCED  by  cells  extend- 
ing into  the  form  of  threads,  and  attaching  themselves 
together  either  at  their  ends  or  side  by  side. 

173.  BUT  THE  QUESTION  MAY  BE  ASKED,  What  makes 

these  fibres  assume  their  appropriate  positions  in  so  many 
different  textures  ? 

174.  THE  ANSWER  is,  that  the  influence  of  the  tis- 
sues upon  each  other  causes  them  to  assume  those  special 
arrangements  of  form  that  adapt  them  to  their  purpose, 
so  that,  as  a  minute*  portion  of  tissue  can  determine  the 
compounding  of  elements  or  principles,  so  does  a  larger 
amount  of  tissue  or  several  tissues  determine  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  parts  of  the  tissue  in  a  texture. 

Remark. — Sinewy  tissue,  being  a  dense  and  passive  mass  when  in  the 
form  of  Ligament  and  tendon,  and  Blood-vessels  not  being  permissible 
in  those  textures,  is  very  slow  in  restoration  when  sprained  or  strained. 
Time,  patience,  and  rest,  are  the  chief  curative  means.  The  thousand, 
nostrums  and  external  applications  used  are  useless,  or  worse  than  that. 
If  the  part  is  too  warm,  cool  it,  if  too  cool,  warm  it,  and  promote  circu- 
lation by  rubbing,  if  not  painful.  After  a  time,  if  the  part  is  stiff,  but 
not  painful,  induce  action  by  forcibly  moving  it,  and  gradually  increase 
the  extent  of  motion.  It  must  be  expected  that  more  time  will  be  re- 
quired to  restore  parts  badly  sprained  than  to  unite  broken  bones. 

SECTION  V. 

Gristly  or  Cartilaginous  Tissue. 

175.  GRISTLE  OR  CARTILAGE  is  a  somewhat  firm, 
flexible,  and  elastic  tissue,  of  which  the  frame  of  the 
ear  and  the  tip  of  the  nose  are  good  examples. 

1 76.  CARTILAGINOUS  TISSUE  is  DIVIDED  into  Carti- 
lage and  Fibro-Cartilage,  or  Gristle  and  Sinewy-Gristle. 

1 77.  GRISTLE  PROPER  is  COMPOSED  of  a  dense  gristly 
substance  called   hyaline  or   chondrine   or   cartilagine, 


172.  How  -?    173.  What  -  ?  174.  What  -?  What  said  of  sprains?    175.  What 
—  ?    176  H«w  —  ?    177.  How  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  185 

which  is  very  much  like  Gelatine,  in  which  are  imbedded 
a  great  number  of  cells  containing  a  small  amount  of 
earthy  matter,  like  that  of  the  Bones. 

FIG.  147. 

Fig.  147  represents  a  por- 
tion of  cartilage  or  gristle 
with  nucleated  cells  imbed- 
ded in  it.  Some  of  them 
have  two  nuclei,  and  appear 
to  be  dividing  to  form  new 
cells.  The  fibro-cartilage 
will  be  represented,  and  car- 
tilage further  illustrated,  in 
connection  with  Bony  Tissue. 
(See  Fig.  41.) 

178.  FIBRO-CARTILAGE  OR  SINEWY-GRISTLE  is  com- 
posed of  a  varying  proportion  of  fibres  and  gristle,  all 
the  way  from  a  very  few  fibres  up  to  nearly  all  fibres 
and  a  very  few  cells. 

179.  THE  GRISTLY  TISSUE  is  passive  in  its  offices, 
and  does  not  require  the  activity-giving  Elements  of  the 
second  group ;  it  is  therefore  composed,  like  the  Sinewy 
Tissue,  of  inactive  Elements,  with  a  small  portion  of 
earthy  matter  combined. 

Remark. — As  Cartilage  or  Gristly  tissue  is  liable  to  compression  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time,  it  would  not  be  proper  to  have  Blood- 
tubes  extend  through  it.  Therefore  its  nourishment,  like  that  of  liga- 
ments and  tendons,  must  come  into  it  from  Blood-tubes  near  its  sur- 
faces. The  passage  of  nutritious  substances  into  and  of  waste  substances 
from  the  inner  portions  of  the  cartilages  must  be  slow,  though  not  as 
slow  as  in  the  case  of  ligaments  ;  and  of  course  their  restoration  from 
injury  will  be  correspondingly  tedious. 

SECTION  VI. 
Bony  or  Osseous  Tissue. 

180.  IP    A    BONE    IS    EXPOSED    TO     A    CONSIDERABLE 

HEAT  for  some  time,  it  becomes  very  brittle  and  crum- 


Describe  Fig.  147.     173.  Describe  — .    179.  What  said  of  — ?    How  nourished? 
ISO.  What—? 


186 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


bles  easily,  showing  that  the  substance  that  gave  tenacity 
has  been  burned  out. 

181.  IF  A  BONE  IS  EXPOSED  TO  THE  ACTION  OF  DI- 
LUTED NITRIC  OR  MURIATIC  ACID  for  a  time,  an  earthy 
substance  is  taken  from  it,  and  a  flexible  gristly  sub- 
stance of  the  form  and  size  of  the  original  bone  is  left. 

FIG.  148. 


Fig.  148  repre- 
sents the  animal  or 
gristly  portion  of  a 
bone  tied  in  a  knot. 


182.  THESE  EXPERIMENTS  SHOW  that  bones  are  con- 
stituted  of  two   classes   of  substance,  one  called  the 
earthy,  and  the  other  the  animal  part — it  is  about  one 
third  the  whole. 

183.  THE  ANIMAL  PART  is  ALSO  CALLED  gristle,  but 
not  properly,  for  it  is  found  to  be  composed  of  gelatine, 
like  white  sinewy  tissue ;   but  it  has  not  a  fibrous  ar- 
rangement.    Another  name  is  Osteine. 

184.  BONES  THEN  ARE  COMPOSED  of  gelatine,  with  a 
large  but  variable  proportion  of  earthy  substance,  phos- 
phate of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  inti- 
mately combined  throughout,  so  that  both  the  gelatine 
and  the  earths  have  the  entire  size  and  form  of  the  bone. 

185.  BONE  is  FORMED  by  having  cartilage  or  fibrous 
membrane,  first  constituted  in  the  position  which  the  bone 
is  to  occupy ;  then  the  cartilaginous  matter  is  exchanged 
for  the  gelatinous,  or  the  fibrous  arrangement  of  it  is 
changed,  and  the  earthy  matter  is  deposited  in  increased 


181.  What  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  148.    1S2.  What  do  -  ?    183.  What  -  ?    184  Of 
what-?    185.  Howls—? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF    TISSUES. 


187 


proportions  from  the  first  till  the  close  of  life,  producing 
great  brittleness  of  the  bones  in  advanced  years. 

FIG.  149. 


Fjg.  149  represents,  at  3,  a  small  portion  taken  from  the  centre  of  a 
bone,  having  a  thick,  dense  exterior,  and  a  central  canal ;  at  1  the  dense 
part  growing  thinner,  enclosing  2,  a  mass  of  curiously  wrought  bone,  look- 
ing like  very  fine  sponge,  and  called  cancellated.  The  appearance  can 
be  seen  in  almost  any  bone. 

FIG.  150.  FIG.  151. 


Fig.  150  represents  a  magnified  portion  of  bone,  and  the  arrangement 
of  matter  around  the  canals,  a,  b,  forming  hollow  rods ;  c,  tissue  packed 
between  the  cylinders.  The  canals  are  channels  for  the  location  of  blood- 
tubes,  nerves,  etc.,  for  nourishing  the  bone. 

Fig.  151,  a,  represents,  in  black,  one  canal,  ff,  c,  and  very  much  enlarged 
lacunae,  arranged  around  it ;  b,  an  irregular  cluster  between  cylinders. 
The  branches  from  the  lacunae  are  seen  to  communicate  in  some  cases. 
Thus  nourishment  has  the  opportunity  of  reaching  every  part  of  a  bone. 


Describe  Fig.  149.    Describe  Fig.  150.    Describe  Fig.  151.    When  will  bones 
most  readily  be  broken  ? 


188 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


186.  BOXY  TISSUE  is  ALSO  CONSTRUCTED  in  very 
dense  laminae,  as  at  the  surface  of  the  bones,  or  in  a 
cancellated  manner,  as  at  the  ends  of  all  and  in  the  cen- 
tres of  many,  or  with  large  central  canals,  as  in  the  long 
bones— in  all  of  which  spaces  marrow  is  deposited. 


FIG.  152. 


Fig.  152  represents  a  portion  of  bone  beneath  a  portion  of  cartilage, 
attached  and  forming  the  surface  of  a  joint.  The  cells  in  it  are,  near  the 
bone,  perpendicular  to  it,  and  near  the  surface  parallel  to  it.  The  bone 
appears  in  laminae,  with  numerous  lacunae  and  several  Haversian  canals, 
7,  in  their  midst. 

Fig.  153  represents  a  portion  of  fibro-cartilage ;  a,  more  highlj  magni- 
fied, and  bone,  b,  the  configuration  of  the  laminae  being  indicated,  and  the 
lacunae,  in  black,  irregular  spots,  with  their  canaliculi  radiating  from  them, 
being  very  distinctly  shown.  These  are  cavities. 

187.  THE  BONY  TISSUE  is  also  deposited  around 
minute  canals,  called  Haversian,  after  their  first  describ- 
er,  and  around  small  cavities  called  lacunae,  that  are  ex- 
ceedingly numerous ;  so  that  though  Bony  Tissue  may 
seem  to  be  very  dense,  it  will  be  found  to  be  excavated 


186.  How  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  152.    Describe  Fig.  153.    187.  —  how  depoeited? 
Is  the  bony  tissue  really  dense  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  189 

in  every  direction,  and  made  very  light  without  materi- 
ally diminishing  its  strength. 

188.  ON  THE  OTHER  HAND  IT  MAY  BE  SAID  that  Bony 

Tissue  is  constituted  as  a  texture  of  hollow  bony  rods 
packed  together  in  different  directions,  such  as  will  give 
to  each  part  of  a  Bone  its  greatest  strength,  which  will 
be  clearly  shown  in  the  description  of  the  different  Bones. 
Remark. — Bony  Tissue  has  a  multitude  of  Blood-tubes  in  every  part, 
and  is,  of  all  the  passive  tissues,  most  readily  restored. 

SECTION  VII. 
Comparison  of  Tissues. 

189.  A  COMPARISON  OF  ALL  THE  TISSUES  SHOWS  that 

there  are  three  active  and  three  passive. 

190.  A  COMPARISON  OF   THE  ACTIVE   TISSUES  SHOWS 

that  they  are  permanent  varieties  of  the  cellular,  and  are 
all  albuminous,  yet  different  from  each  other,  and  the 
substances  within  the  cells  are  called  Nervine,  Muscu- 
line,  Celline.  The  latter  is  of  many  varieties. 

191.  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  PASSIVE  TlSSUES  SHOWS 

that  they  may  be  considered  as  varieties  of  the  sinewy 
tissue  with  additions ;  that  they  are  gelatinous,  with  or 
without  the  combination  of  earthy  matters,  and  called 
Osteine,  Chondrine  or  Cartilagine,  and  Gelatine. 

192.  THE  BODY  THEREFORE  is  COMPOSED  of  three 
gelatinous  and  three  albuminous  tissues;  and  the  organic 
substances  of  which  these  tissues  are  composed,  as  they 
exist  in  the  living  body  ready  for  action,  have  the  six 
distinctive  names  that  indicate  clearly  the  correctness 
of  the  tissural  classification. 

(  Gelatine. 
GELATINOUS •<  Chondrine. 

(  Osteine. 

(  Celline. 
ALBUMINOUS •<  Musculine. 

(  Nervine. 

188.  What  —  ?  Do  Blood-tubes  exist  here?   189.  —shows  what?  190.  —  shows 
what?    191.  —  shows  what?    192.  How  —  ?    Table. 


190  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

193.  ALL  THE  ACTIVE  TISSUES  ARE  CONSTITUTED  in 
part  of  phosphorus ;  none  of  the  passive  tissues  are,  ex- 
cept as  a  component  of  their  earthy  constituents. 

194.  Query. — MAT  NOT  THE  ACTIVE  TISSUES,  in  performing  their 
action,  so  far  decompose  that  their  phosphorus  and  a  part  of  their  nitro- 
gen and  sulphur  will  be  no  longer  of  value  in  the  Body,  while  the  bal- 
ance of  the  nitrogen  and  sulphur,  together  with  their  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
and  carbon,  may,  after  some  modification,  be  used  to  constitute  the  gela- 
tine of  the  passive  tissues  ? 

195.  Remark. — THE  SUBSTANCES  ELIMINATED  BY  THE  KIDNEYS  after 
unusual  activity  of  the  brain,  would  tend  to  sustain  the  suggestion  just 
made.     At  such  a  time  the  eliminations  of  the  kidneys  will  abound  in 
ammonia  composed  in  part  of  nitrogen,  and  hi  phosphates. 

196.  AlST    ENTIRE    REVIEW    OF    THE    NECESSITIES    OF 

THE  BODY,  as  exhibited  by  the  constitution  of  the  Tis- 
sues and  their  demands,  shows  that  there  is  a  requirement 
for  three  classes  of  substances  in  the  Blood:  1st,  those 
from  which  the  Albuminoid  or  active  tissues  can  be 
formed ;  2d,  those  from  which  the  Gelatinous  or  passive 
tissues  can  be  formed ;  and  3d,  those  which  are  Calorific. 

197.  OF    THE    THREE    CLASSES     OF    SUBSTANCES,    the 

plant  furnishes  only  two,  the  1st  and  3d,  and  therefore 
the  2d  must  come  from  one  or  both  of  the  other  two. 
But  as  gelatine  contains  more  elements  than  exist  in  the 
calorific  substances,  it  cannot  be  formed  from  them,  and 
therefore  must  be  directly  or  indirectly  produced  from 
the  albuminoid  class. 

Inf. — This  view  suggests  another  argument  in  favor  of  the  idea  that 
the  gelatinous  tissues  are  constituted  from  the  decomposing  active  tis- 
sues, with  the  addition  of  such  chemical  compounds  as  are  necessary. 

Remark. — When  Bones  are  broken,  or  the  other  gelatinous  tissues 
are  to  be  repaired,  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  may  be  constituted 
directly  from  the  albuminous  food,  of  which  much  at  such  times  is  re- 
quired, and  should  be  eaten.  Such  tissues,  at  such  times,  cannot  be 
rapidly  repaired  from  a  slop  diet,  and  unless  there  is  serious  objection,  a 
hearty  diet  and  plenty  of  it  should  be  allowed ;  soft-cooked  eggs  being 
one  of  the  best  articles,  and  meats  being  preferable  to  other  diet. 


193.  How—?    194.  Query.    195.  What  shown  by  — ?    196.  What  said  of  — ? 
197.  What  said  —  ?    What  Inf.  ?    What  if  bones  are  broken  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES. 


191 


Remark. — One  of  the  most  important  lessons  to  be  learned  from  a 
review  of  all  the  tissues  is,  that  Time  is  one  of  the  essential  elements  in 
their  production,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  more  Time  the  plant  has 
for  perfecting  its  compounds  the  better,  and  that  a  perfect  work  cannot 
be  done  by  the  animal  tissues  without  Time  is  allowed  for  their  compo- 
sition. The  Brain,  in  particular,  requires  time  for  its  perfection,  and 
if  it  is  made  active  too  long,  or  with  too  brief  intervals  of  repose,  its 
cells  do  not  become  mature  and  perfect,  and  nervous  excitement,  irrita- 
bility, and  other  disorders  will  be  manifested  or  ensue.  The  constant 
activity  of  city  life  requires  long  periods  of  repose.  Students  should 
sleep  much  and  well ;  and  for  recuperation  of  any  part,  repose,  rest, 
and  quiet,  are  necessary. 


SECTION  VIII. 

Compound  Tissues. 

198;     ADIPOSE  TISSUE  is  usually  treated  as  if  it  were 
a  distinct  Tissue,  but  it  is  merely  cells,  the  walls  of  which 


FIG.  154. 


FIG.  155. 


Fig.  154  represents  a  cluster  of  fat  cells  inclosed  in  a 
small  number  of  sinewy  fibres,  as  if  entangled  in  a  net. 

Fig.  155  represents,  at  1,  a  very  highly  magnified  view 
of  capillary  blood-vessels  woven  around  and  among  the 
fat  cells ;  2  is  three  cells  with  loops  of  vessels  around  them; 
5,  a  compressed  cluster  of  cells ;  3,  an  artery  ;  4,  a  vein. 


What  said  of  time?    Why  does  repair  of  brain  require  time  ?    198.  What  —  ? 
Describe  Fig.  154.    Describe  Fig.  155. 


192  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

are  albuminous,  filled  with  fat,  and  kept  in  their  position 
by  sinewy  fibres.  There  may  be  one  or  many  cells  to- 
gether, and  they  can  increase  or  diminish  as  any  other 
cells  do. 

Remark. — In  milk,  the  fat  or  butter  is  contained  in  albuminoid  cells, 
that  must  be  broken  by  churning,  in  order  that  the  butter  may  be  gath- 
ered ;  and  the  more  perfectly  this  is  done,  and  the  more  completely  the 
inclosing  cell  is  removed  from  the  butter,  and  is  left  pure,  the  better 
it  will  keep.  If  rancid,  it  can  be  greatly  unproved,  if  not  made  sweet, 
by  thoroughly  washing  out  the  decomposing  cells.  This  can  be  done 
best  in  sweet  milk.  (See  Fig.  124.) 

199.  There  are  also  THREE  COMPOUND  MEMBRANES 
of  very  considerable  importance,  to  be  described  before 
proceeding  to  the    consideration  of  organs;    they  are 
called  the  skin,  and  mucous  and  serous  membranes,  and 
correspond  to  the  three  general  surfaces  of  the  body ;  the 
external,  the  air  and  food,  and  the  internal  surfaces,  fur- 
nished with  the  three  kinds  of  cells,  the  epidermic  or 
cuticular,  the  epithelial  or  mucous,  and  the  tesselated  or 
serous,  and   lubricated  by  the  three   surface-fluids,  oil, 
mucus,  and  serum. 

200.  THE  SKIN,  as  already  stated,  is  COMPOSED  of  a 
thick  under  part  formed  of  sinewy  fibres,  woven  so  as 
to  form  meshes  that  are  occupied  by  the  Blood-tubes, 
red  and  white,  by  the  nerves,  and  by  perspiratory,  hair, 
and  sebaceous  glands,  and  their  outlets.     The  uneven  or 
papillated  surface  of  this  layer  is  covered  by  the  exqui- 
sitely delicate  basement  membrane  from  which  spring 
up  the  cells  that,  filled  with  watery  fluid  and  a  little 
horny  matter,  become  dry,  flattened  scales  as  they  reach 
the  surface. 

201.  THE   MUCOUS   MEMBRANE    is   correspondingly 
CONSTITUTED  of  three  layers,  the  sinewy  having  Blood- 
tubes,  nerves,  and  glands  in  its  meshes,  a  basement  mem- 
brane upon  it,  and  one  or  several  layers  of  cells  forming 
the  free  surface. 


What  said  of  milk  and  butter?    199.  What  said  of  —  ?    200.  How  — ?   201.  How 
— T    What  Fig.  illustrates  compound  membrane  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  193 

202.  THE  SEKOUS  MEMBRANE  is  like  the  preceding, 
except  that  it  is  thinner,  and  has  but  a  single  layer  of 
thin  cells  forming  its  surface,  pouring  out  a  watery  fluid 
called  serum.     It  is  called  by  many  different  names  in 
different  places,  though  always  one  thing  ;  for  example, 
Pleura,  at  the  surface  of  the  Lungs,  Peritoneum,  in  the 
Abdomen,  Dura- Mater,  when  lining  the  Skull,  &c. 

203.  THE  LATTER  TWO  COMPOUND  MEMBRANES  enter 
into  the  composition  of  a  large  number  of  organs ;  and 
though  they  are  compound  parts,  they  are  usually  con- 
sidered and  spoken  of  as  elements  of  organs.     As  they 
are  common  to  many,  it  is  proper  that  they  should  be 
briefly  described  under  the  head  of  General  Physiology. 


SECTION  IX. 

Liquids. 

204.  THE  CHIEF  PART  OF  ATT.  THE  LIQUIDS  IN  THE 
BODY  is  FORMED  of  Water,  which,  in  fact,  is  the  liquid 
of  the  Body,  having  more  or  less  of  various  substances 
dissolved  in  it. 

205.  WATER  SERVES  FOUR  PURPOSES  IN  THE  BODY  : 
1st,  as  a  vehicle  it  transports  the  substances  dissolved 
in  it,  and  also  heat,  from  place  to  place ;  2d,  it  moistens 
the  soft  solids  of  the  Body,  in  fact,  makes  them  soft  and 
pliable — for  when  it  is  dried  away  they  become  hard ;  3d, 
by  evaporating  from  the  Skin  and  Lungs  it  removes  a 
corresponding  amount  of  heat ;  4th,  when  removed  from 
the  circulation  by  the  Kidneys,  the  quantity  of  Blood 
is  correspondingly  diminished,  passes  round  the  quicker, 
produces  more  heat  in  a  given  time,  circulates  it  faster,  <fcc. 

206.  WATER  is  merely  a  chemical  compound ;  serves 
simply  mechanical  purposes  in  the  Body,  and  is  intro- 
duced and  used  by  physical  means  alone. 

802.  What  -  ?    What  its  special  names  ?    203.  What  said  -  ?    204  Of  what  —  ? 
206.  How  does  —  ?    206.  What  — ? 

9 


194  DETAILED  SYNTHESIS. 

207.  THE  NECESSITY    FOR   WATER    IN    INCREASED 
QUANTITY  is  SIGNIFIED  by  thirst,  which  very  properly 
exists  when  water  passes  away  by  the  action  of  the 
Skin  to  promote  the  loss  of  heat,  but  does  not  exist 
when  Water  is  removed   by  the  Kidneys  to  increase 
heat. 

208.  BLOOD  is  a  very  complex  fluid,  composed  large- 
ly of  Water,  in  which,  as  a  vehicle,  digested  food,  oxy- 
gen from  the  air,  and  effete  material  from  the  tissues  are 
dissolved. 

209.  BLOOD  HAS  THEREFORE  a  double  character :  it 
is  composed  of  useful  and  useless  material. 

210.  BLOOD  OBTAINS  FROM  FOOD  calorific  material 
in  the  form  of  fat  and  sugar,  and  nutritious  material  in 
the  form  of  liquid  albuminose,  with  which  is  united  the 
necessary  chemical   compounds  to   supply  the  passive 
tissues. 

211.  BLOOD   OBTAINS  FROM   DECOMPOSING  TISSUE  a 
variety  of  compounds  that  are  useless  in  the  particular 
tissue  from  which  they  are  thrown  off,  yet  may  in  part 
be  of  use  in  some  of  lower  grade,  or  may  be  burned, 
producing  heat,  or  else  must  be  eliminated. 

212.  THE  BLOOD  is  THUS  THE  COMMON  SOURCE  of 
materials  of  all  the  tissues  and  all  the  liquids,  and  is  the 
common  receptacle  of  materials  discarded  by  them ;  yet 
none  of  the  substances  composing  the  tissues  exist  in  the 
Blood  in  the  same  condition  as  in  the  tissues,  nor  do 
most  of  the  fluids.     Some  of  the  fluids  are  merely  drawn 
from  the  Blood. 

213.  IN  ADDITION,  th<e  Blood  is  composed  in  part  of 
an  immense,  almost  incredible,  number  of  Blood-cells. 
In  health  there  are  nearly  three  thousand  in  every  drop. 
Less  than  seventeen  hundred  are  never  found,  and  some- 
times twice  that  number :  increase  or  diminution  by  any 
great  number  indicates  disease. 

-.-  7.  HOW  -?    208.  What  -?    209.  What  —  ?    210.  What  does  -?    211.  What 
<loe»  t.  ?    212.  Of  what  -  ?    218.  Wlwt  twiil  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  195 

214.  THE  BLOOD-CELLS  CONSTANTLY  DISSOLVE,  and 
new  ones  take  their  place  in  rapid  succession.     It  is 
computed  that  not  less  than  twenty  millions  of  them  die 
every  moment  and  yield  their  contents  to  the  Blood,  and 
as  many  come  into  it  in  the  same  time. 

215.  THE  BLOOD-CELLS  AKE  OF  TWO  KINDS,  red  and 
white,  the  latter  about  one  tenth  in  number,  and  the 
source  of  the  former  by  means  of  appropriate  changes. 

216.  THE  RED  BLOOD-CELLS  give  color  to  the  Blood, 
and  by  their  change  in  form  affect  its  shades. 

217.  THE  FORM  OF  THE  RED  CELLS  is  AFFECTED  by 
the  reception  and  discharge  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is 
received  in  the  different  parts  of  the  Body  from  the  de- 
composing tissues,  and  darkens  the  color  of  the  Blood ; 
it  is  given  off  in  the  lungs,  when  the  form  of  the  cells 
again  changes  and  their  color  brightens. 

218.  THE  CELLS  CONTAIN  a  semi-liquid  substance  of 
an    albuminous    character,   not    definitely  understood, 
called  Globuline,  and  a  red  coloring  matter  called  Hae- 
matine,  in  which  the  iron  of  the  Blood  is  found ;  and  as 
it  is  found  in  combination  with  other  coloring  matters, 
and  only  with  such  in  the  Body,  it  is  thought  to  be  of 
prime  consequence  in  that  respect. 

219.  THE  CELLS  DOUBTLESS  ARE  floating  plants  that 
prepare  the  constituents  of  the  Blood  for  their  higher 
position  in  the  tissues. 

220.  IF  THE  CELLS  ARE  STRAINED  OUT  OF  THE  BLOOD, 

the  remaining  portion,  if  allowed  to  stand,  will  separate 
into  a  fibrous  mass  called  fibrin,  or  the  clot,  and  a  liquid 
portion  called  the  serum  of  the  Blood. 

221.  IF  BLOOD  BE  DRAWN  AND  STIRRED  WITH  RODS, 
fibres  of  the  same  substance  will  cling  to  them. 

222.  IT  is  A  QUESTION  how  or  where  this  fibrin  of  the 
Blood  is  formed  and  what  end  it  serves.     It  has  nearly 
the  same  constitution  as  albumen.    Most  argue  that  it  is 


214.  How  do  —  ?    215.  Of  what  —  ?    216.  What  the  effect  —  ?    21T.  How  is  —  ? 
218.  Wliat  do  — ?    219.  What  -  f    220.  What  — ?    221.  What  -  ?    222.  What  —9 


196  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

albumen  changing  into  tissue ;  but  it  must  be  allowed 
that  its  rationale  is  not  understood. 

223.  THE  SERUM  OF  THE  BLOOD  CONTAINS  its  albu- 
men, calorific  compounds,  chemical  compounds,  and  the 
waste  material  of  the  tissues. 

224.  PHYSICALLY,  BLOOD  MAY  BE  DIVIDED  into  cells, 
fibrin,  and  serum.     (Fat  may  also  be  mentioned.) 

225.  LYMPH  is  a  watery  fluid,  slightly  tinged,  re- 
sembling  the   serum  of  the   Blood  in  many  respects, 
though  not  of  course  so  complex.    It  is  sometimes  called 
the  white  Blood.     It  contains  cells  like  the  white  ones 
of  the  red  Blood,  and  of  various  sizes,  and  which,  as  they 
develop,  become  genuine  red  cells. 

226.  FLESH-JUICE  is  a  watery  fluid  like  serum. 

227.  SERUM  is  a  fluid  composed  of  water  and  a  very 
small  portion  of  albumen,  to  produce  glairiness.     The 
percentage  of  albumen  varies  in  different  cases,  being 
largest  in  the  joints. 

228.  Mucus  is  about  one  half  water  and  the  other 
half  albumen,  producing  a  viscid  liquid  of  a  very  slimy 
and  glairy  character. 

229.  FAT  is,  in  man,  properly  speaking,  an  oil,  as  it 
is  liquid  at  the  temperatures  of  the  Body.    It  forms  parts 
of  the  Blood,  and  is  deposited  in  cells  in  various  parts  of 
the  Body.    It  is  a  component  of  the  Brain,  and  is  poured 
out  on  the  surface  of  the  Skin  to  protect  it  from  harm. 

230.  FAT  is  OBTAINED  from  the  food  directly,  also 
from  the  starch  eaten,  and  perhaps  also  from  sugar.     It 
abounds  in  meat,  and  exists  also  in  many  vegetables  and 
in  the  seeds  of  grain,  being  especially  abundant  in  corn. 

231.  Remark. — THE  OTHER  FLUIDS  OF  THE  BODY  ARE  ADAPTED  to 
special  purposes,  and  can  be  better  studied  in  connection  with  the  par- 
ticular organs  to  the  use  of  which  they  are  related.  Several  of  the  pre- 
ceding also  must  again  come  under  observation  in  describing  the  organs 
with  which  their  varieties  are  associated. 


228.  What  does  -?    224.  How  —  ?    225.  What  —  ?    226.  What  -?    227.  What 
—  ?    228.  What  —  ?    229.  What  —  ?    280.  How  —  ?    281.  To  what  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES,  197 

SECTION  X. 

Gases. 

232.  THE  BLOOD  HAS  A  CAPACITY  of  taking  into  it- 
self a  certain  amount  of  gas — of,  so  to  speak,  dissolving  it. 
Now  it  does  not  drink  all  the  air,  but  makes  a  choice, 
taking  the  oxygen  and  leaving  the  nitrogen.     This  it 
does  in  the  lungs  and  in  the  stomach,  when  air  is  swal- 
lowed in  the  saliva,  as  it  is  especially  while  speaking. 

233.  THE  OXYGEN  OF  THE  BLOOD  MAY  BE  OF  USE  in 
two  ways :  it  may  combine  with  some  of  the  constituents 
of  the  Blood  in  its  circuit  and  produce  heat,  or  it  may 
seize  upon  some  of  the  decomposing  elements  in  the  tis- 
sues and  assist  in  bringing  them  into  the  Blood.     It  is 
certainly  of  great  use,  and  should  be  plentifully  received : 
the  capacity  of  the  Blood  to  receive  it  should  be  con- 
stantly satisfied. 

234.  CARBONIC  ACID  is  a  gas  that  is  constantly  form- 
ing in  the  different  parts  of  the  Body,  both  by  the  de- 
composing tissues  and  the  calorific  food.     Any  surplus 
quantity  must  be  speedily  removed,  for  it  is  very  deadly, 
and  at  times  accumulates  very  fast. 

•235.  OTHER  GASES  ARE  PRODUCED  by  disease,  indi- 
gestion, etc.,  but  their  number  is  not  definite  nor  uniform, 
nor  is  their  quantity. 

Practical  JReview. 

236.  A   REVIEW    OF   WHAT   HAS  BEEN  SAID  Upon  Tis- 

sues,  Liquids,  and  Gases,  and  their  constituents,  will 
convince  any  one  that  they  are  topics  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance in  reference  to  the  Laws  of  Hygiene. 

237.  IN    THE     FIRST     PLACE,    IT    HAS    BEEN     DEMON- 
STRATED that  certain   substances   must  be  selected  for 
food,  since  the  Body  is  composed  of  only  a  few. 

232.  For  what  —  ?    233.  How  —  ?    234.  What  —  ?    235.  How  —  ?    286.  The 
effect  —  ?    23T.  What— ? 


198  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

238.  IN  THE  SECOND  PLACE,  IT  HAS  BEEN  SHOWN  that 

the  active  Tissues  undergo  changes  by  use,  as  do  the 
liquids  and  gases,  and  therefore  the  food  taken  must 
correspond  to  the  activity;  and  if  the  food  cannot  be  had 
or  cannot  be  digested  or  otherwise  prepared  properly, 
the  activity  of  the  tissues  must  be  limited  by  the  facts 
existing. 

239.  IN  THE  THIRD  PLACE,  IT  HAS  BEEN  PROVED  that 

food  adapted  to  produce  heat  is  different  from  that 
adapted  to  nourish  the  tissues,  and  therefore  should  be 
eaten  abundantly  when  the  Body  is  to  be  warmed,  as  in 
cold  weather,  and  sparingly  in  warm  weather. 

Remark. — IT  MUST  BE  EVIDENT,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  keep- 
ing the  Body  properly  clad  and  sheltered  will  prevent  the  escape  of  heat, 
and  save  the  necessity  for  a  corresponding  amount  of  food.  Proper 
clothing  is  therefore  an  economy.  It  will  be  equally  advantageous  to 
apply  the  same  deductions  to  the  care  of  animals.  Horses  blanketed, 
and  cattle  kept  in  apartments  artificially  warmed  during  cold  weather, 
are  kept  at  less  cost,  and  do  better.  A  good  digestion  of  a  plentiful 
supply  of  food  is  healthy ;  therefore,  the  body  should  not  be  kept  so 
warm  as  not  to  need  nor  demand  a  good  supply  of  food. 

240.  IN  THE  FOURTH  PLACE,  IT  HAS  ALSO  BEEN  made 

to  appear  rational  that  the  effete  substances  of  the  tissues 
are  in  part  burned  or  can  be  in  the  Body,  so  that  activity 
of  the  tissues  is  directly  or  indirectly  a  source  of  heat. 

241.  IN  THE  FIFTH  PLACE,  IT  HAS  BEEN  ARGUED  that 

the  Elements  constituting  food  vary  in  proportions  in 
the  same  kinds,  which  are  therefore  of  very  various 
qualities,  and  should  be  selected  with  care. 

Remark. — IT  WILL  NOT  BE  UNWORTHY  OF  CONSIDERATION,  as  the  pre- 
vious chapters  have  proved,  that  the  food  necessary  for  furnishing  the 
Blood  with  its  requirements  may  be  obtained  from  different  sources  at 
very  different  rates  of  expense.  For  example :  starch,  sugar,  and  fat  are 
calorific,  and  there  cannot  be  any  appreciable  difference  in  the  amount 
of  heat  that  similar  weights  of  each  will  prodjice.  Starch  is  much  the 
cheapest,  as  it  is  more  readily  produced;  but  it  requires  additional 
preparation  in  the  body,  and  food  must  be  used  to  supply  the  power  re- 


289.  What  —  ?    289.  What  —  ?    What  most  be  evident?    What  said  of  horses 
andeattle?    240.  What—?    241.  What -?    Remark.  What—  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   TISSUES.  199 

quired  in  the  preparation,  so  that  sugar  will  be  nearly  if  not  quite  as 
cheap  at  double  the  price.  Butter  will  produce  no  more  heat  than  any 
fat.  Eggs  are  among  the  very  cheapest  articles  of  nutrition.  Fowls, 
being  warmly  clad,  are  easily  supported,  and  a  great  deal  of  what  they 
eat  is  costless  in  summer ;  hence  their  eggs  are  producible  at  less  cost 
than  any  other  kind  of  meat  Different  kinds  of  breadstuff's  are  pro- 
duced at  varying  costs,  and  are  of  different  values.  Beans  and  cabbages 
are,  among  these  classes  of  food,  probably  the  cheapest,  and  if  properly 
prepared  are  exceedingly  wholesome.  The  brown  part  (the  middlings, 
not  the  bran)  of  wheat  is  really  the  best  of  it,  and  can  be  bought  at  half 
the  price  of  flour.  Note  in  particular  that  the  BRAINS  of  animals  being 
the  most  highly  wrought  of  any  meat-food,  are  the  best  for  man,  espe- 
cially for  students  and  for  "  nervous  "  people.  Brains,  also,  if  rightly 
cooked,  are  very  delicious,  and  of  course  must  be  easily  digested.  Mil- 
lions of  dollars'  worth  of  this  best  of  food  are  yearly  thrown  away  hi  this 
country.  Verily,  ignorance  is  costly. 

242.  IN   THE  SIXTH  PLACE,   IT  HAS  BEEN  CLEARLY  EX- 
HIBITED that  plants  compound  our  food  with  different 
degrees  of  perfection  under  different  circumstances,  and 
that  similar  different  effects  will  be  produced  by  animal 
action  upon  the  components  of  tissues. 

Remark. — THIS  FACT  SHOULD  BK  PARTICULARLY  WEIGHED  in  selecting 
meats,  for  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  good  tissues  can  be  composed  in 
the  human  body  from  the  meat  of  imperfect  animals,  as  many  are  that 
are  brought  into  the  market  (that  cannot  be  considered  cheap  at  any 
price,  unless  it  is  good.)  The  process  of  corning  is  particularly  injurious 
to  meats,  since  it  takes  out  a  large  part  of  their  phosphorus.  It  is  a  fit 
method  of  preserving  only  fats, 

243.  IN  THE  SEVENTH  PLACE,  IT  HAS  BEEN  MADE  EVI- 
DENT that  drink  should  be  taken  to  satisfy  thirst,  and 
that  it  should  be  water. 

244.  IN  THE  EIGHTH  PLACE,  IT  HAS  BEEN  FOUND  NE- 
CESSARY to  health  to  supply  the  Blood  with  an  abun- 
dance of  oxygen,  only  to  be  obtained  from  pure  air ;  that 
this  want  is  constant,  by  night  as  well  as  by  day,  for  an 
accumulation  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  blood  is  a  poison 
of  the  most  deadly  kind. 


What  said  of  essrs?    Fowls?    Other  substances?     242.  What  —  ?      Remark. 
When  —  ?    243.  What  —  ?    244.  What  —  ? 


SPECIAL  PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY,  AND  HYGIENE. 
PROPERTIES  APPLIED  TO  USES. 

CHAPTER  HI. 

SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS. 


Introductory . 

245.  TISSUES  ARE  CONSTITUTED  by  the  process  of 
compounding  Elements  and  Proximate  Principles. 

246.  ORGANS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  by   weaving    to- 
gether Tissues. 

247.  TISSUES  EXHIBIT  characteristics  entirely  differ- 
ent from  those  that  could  be  shown  by  their  components 
separately,  so  that  neither  suggests  the  other,  and  there 
seems  to  be  a  new  creation. 

248.  Remark. — IT  is  VERY  DIFFICULT  FOR  THE  MIND  TO  PERCEIVE 
that  the  characteristics  of  a  compound,  as  well  as  those  of  a  mixture,  are 
wholly  owing  to  the  properties  of  their  Elements ;  and  because  neither 
by  itself  can  exhibit  any  part  of  the  characteristic  of  the  compound, 
the  MIND  CANNOT  EASILY  APPRECIATE  THE  FACT,  that  to  exhibit  new  char- 
acteristics  in  combination  with  other  Elements  is  one  of  the  properties 
of  every  Element.    From  habits  of  thought  and  expression  the  MIND  is 
APT  TO  JUDGE  that  where  entirely  new  characteristics  are  observed,  there 
must  be  some  new  substance,  or  some  new  creative  power ;  and  thus  a 
practical  idea  of  great  value  is  not  realized. 

249.  lllus. — THE  PROPERTY  OF  EXHIBITING  THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF 
WATER  belongs  to  Oxygen  in  combination  with  Hydrogen,  and  to  them 
alone — to  no  other  Elements  either  separately  or  conjointly ;  and  the  fact 


What  the  heading  above  Chapter?    Why?     245   How—?     246.  How—? 
247.  What  do-?    24&  What  —  ?    What-?    What-?    249.  What  said  —  t 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    201 

that  conjointly  they  are  water  is  one  of  their  characteristics,  but  not 
one  that  either  can  exhibit  alone. 

250.  Illus. — THE  six  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  FIRST  TWO  GROUPS  CON- 
JOINTLY ARE  nervous  tissue,  if  combined  in  proper  proportions  and  un- 
der proper  circumstances ;  and  that  such  is  their  property  should  be 
their  most  distinguishing,  as  it  is  their  most  exalted,  characteristic. 

251.  ORGANS  EXHIBIT  only  those  characteristics  that 
can  be  discerned  in  the  tissues  of  which  they  are  con- 
structed ;  so  that  if  the  tissues  are  given,  it  is  easy  to  de- 
termine what  an  organ  constructed  from  them  can  do ; 
or,  if  what  the  organ  can  do  is  given,  it  is  easy  to  say 
of  what  tissues  it  is  constructed. 

252.  TISSUES    ARE     CONSTITUTED    to     pOSSCSS    USeful 

properties. 

253.  ORGANS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  to  make  a  practical 
use  of  the  properties  of  Tissues. 

254.  TISSUES  VARY  in  quality,  according  to  the  pro- 
portions of  their  constituents  and  the  circumstances  un- 
der which  they  were  constituted. 

255.  THE  PERFECTION  WITH  WHICH  AN  ORGAN  WILL 
FULFIL  ITS  USES  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the 
Tissues  of  the  Body,  since  organs  can  be  no  better  nor 
worse  than  the  Tissues  of  which  they  are  constituted. 

256.  Remark. — ONE  KIND  OF  TISSUE  THROUGHOUT  THE  BODY  may 
be  good  or  bad,  and  the  rest  be  the  opposite  ;  or  a  Tissue  in  one  organ 
may  be  good  or  bad,  and  be  the  opposite  in  other  organs,  either  for  a 
brief  time  or  during  a  person's  life,  owing  to  accidental  circumstances 
in  one  case,  and  being  inherent  in  the  other. 

25  7.  AN  ORGAN  MAY  ITSELF  BE  COMPOSED  OF  PER- 
FECT TISSUES  AND  NOT  RECEIVE  PROPER  INFLUENCES 

from  other  organs,  and  thus  its  perfect  action  will  be 
interfered  with.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  organ  is 
said  to  be  functionally  deranged ;  when  its  own  tissues 
are  imperfect,  it  is  said  to  be  organically  deranged. 

258.      IN  THE  STUDY  OF  ORGANS  THE  PRIMARY  OBJECT 

WILL  BE  to  ascertain  of  what  Tissues  and  how  they  are 


250.  What  —  ?    251.  What  do  —  ?    252.  How  —  ?    253.  How  —  ?    254.  How  do 
—  ?    255.  What  said  of  —  ?    256.  What  said  —  ?    257.  What  of  —  ?    258.  What  —  ? 

9* 


202  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

constructed ;  how  they  are  brought  into  action,  whether 
singly,  successively,  or  combinedly;  and  the  result  of 
such  action. 

259.  It  WILL  ALSO  BE  A  SUBJECT  OF  INQUIRY  wheth- 
er an  organ  acts  singly,  successively,   or   combinedly, 
and  what  relations  it  has  with  other  organs. 

260.  THE  GENERAL  APPEARANCE  OF  THE   ORGANS 
must  also  be  described,  their  color,  size,  form,  surface, 
and  position ;  which  last  point  indicates  the  organs  to  be 
first  described,  since  there  is  but  one  class  of  organs  the 
positions  of  which  can  be  independently  described,  and 
to  which  also  the  position  of  all  the  rest  can  be  conveni- 
ently referred. 

SECTION  I. 
Skeleton. 

261.  THE  SKELETON  is  REQUIRED,  as  a  framework 
from  h6ad  to  foot,  to  be  strong  as  a  support  and  protec- 
tion, yet  light,  that  it  may  be  easily  carried,  and  con- 
structed with  many  joints,  that  it  may  be  flexible.     Its 
surface  must  be  sufficiently  extended  to  allow  all  parts 
a  proper  attachment  to  it,  yet  not  so  great  as  to  be  un- 
wieldy or  unsightly. 

262.  ALL  THE  DESIRED  RESULTS  ARE  MOST  PERFECT- 
LY ATTAINED  by  the  appropriate  use  of  four  tissues:  the 
Bony,  to  construct  the  hard  part ;  the  Gristly,  to  give 
elasticity  and  a  perfect  finish  to  the  joints,  and  to  form 
the  entire  frame  of  some  parts ;  the  Sinewy,  to  bind  all 
parts  snugly  together,  and  to  sheathe  the  bones  and  car- 
tilages ;  and  the  Secretory,  to  secrete  a  fluid  (Synovial) 
to  prevent  friction  at  the  joints. 

{Bones. 
££±5; 
Synovial  Membranes. 


259.  What  —  ?    260.  What  said  —  ?    Subject  of  Section  II.    261.  Why  —  f 
262.  How  — ?    Table. 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    203 

263.  THE  SKELETON  is  DIVISIBLE  on  the  middle  line 
of  the  Body  into  two  similar  halves,  or  two  wholes,  as  a 
person  prefers  to  speak  of  it,  most  of  the  bones  in  each 
being  complete  and  undoubtedly  double,  as  the  ribs, 
aim-bones,  etc.,  and  others  being  seen  as  double  only 
when  observed  with  a  philosophical  eye,  as  the  vertebrae. 

264.  THE  BONES  ARE  CLASSED  as  long,  tabular  or 
broad,  irregular,  and  short ;   examples  of  which  will  be 
recognized  by  an  observation  of  the  illustrations  in  the 
plates. 

265.  THE  BONES  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  with  very  un- 
even surfaces,  and  with  many  projecting  points,  called 
processes,  to  allow  surface  for  the  attachment  of  tendons 
and  ligaments,  and  also  to  give  the  muscles  a  leverage 
power. 

266.  THE   HARDNESS   OF  THE  BONES  not  only  in- 
creases with  the  age  of  a  person,  but  it  differs  in  differ- 
ent bones  at  the  same  age,  and  indeed  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  bone. 

267.  THE  GRISTLE  OR  CARTILAGE  differs  in  its  form, 
thickness,  and  elasticity,  at  different  joints.     In  some 
parts  of  the  body  it  gradually  changes  to  bone,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  breast-bone  or  sternum, 
and  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs ;  while  in  other  cases  it 
never  ossifies,  as  changing  to  bone  is  termed. 

268.  Remark. — It  is  easy  to  determine  if  a  fowl  is  young,  by  ob- 
serving if  the  point  of  the  breast-bone  yields. 

269.  THE  GRISTLE  THAT  COVERS  THE  ENDS  OF  BONES 
IN  FORMING  JOINTS  is  thicker  in  the  centre  than  at  the 
sides  of  the  ball,  and  thicker  at  the  sides  than  at  the 
centre  of  the  socket. 

270.  THE   FORMS  OF  THE  JOINTS  are  various.     In 
some  cases,  as  in  the  skull,  the  bones  are  locked  together 
immovably;  in  other  cases,  as  those  of  the  thigh  and 
shoulder  ball-and-socket  joint,  there  is  a  very  extensive 


26:1.    How—?    264.  How  —  ?    265.  How—?    266  Whnt.  said  -?    267    What 
said  —  ?    268.  What  said  of  fowl  ?    269.  What  said  -  ?     270.  What  said  —  ? 


204  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

motion ;  at  the  elbow  and  knee  are  examples  of  hinge- 
joint  ;  that  of  the  wrist  is  a  compound  hinge,  like  the 
ankle,  while  in  the  lower  arm  and  neck  there  are  rotary 
joints.  Other  joints  allow  a  still  more  limited  motion, 
to  which  attention  will  be  drawn. 

271.  THE  LIGAMENTS  that  bind  the  bones  together 
are  of  three  kinds :  the  flat  or  strap,  the  round,  and  the 
capsular.  The  first  is  the  most  common.  They  are  all 
arranged  so  as  to  permit  desirable  motion,  but  to  check 
all  other.  (See  Fig.  2,  PL  17  and  PL  18.) 

272.  Remark. — The  action  of  muscles  also  tends  to  bind  the  organs 
together  at  the  joints.  The  pressure  of  the  air  is  of  considerable  effect, 
for  if  all  the  ligaments  of  a  hip-joint  should  be  cut,  it  would  require  a 
weight  of  forty  pounds  to  draw  the  bone  from  its  socket. 

273.  THE  JOINTS  AEE  LINED  WITH  serous  membrane, 
that  continually  secretes  the  glairy,  anti-friction  synovia 
or  synovial  fluid.   In  early  life  this  membrane  covers  the 
entire  surface  of  the  cartilages  of  a  joint ;  but  in  later 
years  the  cartilages  themselves  appear  to  touch,  and  the 
synovial  membrane  is  found  lining  only  the  sides  of  the 
joint.     Sometimes  the  membrane  is  laid  in  folds  and 
fringes  in  the  sides  of  the  joint,  as  in  the  knee,  so  that 
it  may  form  a  larger  quantity  of  fluid.    (Fig.  6,  PI.  17.) 

274.  IN  SOME  OF  THE  JOINTS  THERE  is  an  extra  or 
friction  cartilage,  to  promote  freedom  of  motion  in  the 
joint.     (See  Fig.  162.) 

FIG.  156. 

Fig.  156  represents  the 
Periosteum  peeled  up 
from  a  part  of  the  bone 
upon  and  to  which  it 
grew. 

275.  THE  BONES  AND   CARTILAGES   ARE   COVERED 
with  a  thin,  dense,  finely-textured  membrane  of  sinewy 
tissue,  called  periosteum  on  the  bones,  and  perichondrium 

271.  How  nmny  kinds  of  -  ?    272.  What  said  of  air  ?    273.  How  —  ?    274  What 
—  ?    Describe  Fig.  156.    275.  How  -? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    205 

on  the  cartilages ;  on  the  head  it  is  called  pericranium. 
It  follows  the  nutritious  canals  leading  into  the  bone, 
and  lines  the  central  and  medullary  canal  and  the  areolae 
of  the  spongy  portion,  under  the  name  of  endosteum. 

276.  THE  CENTRAL  CAVITIES  OF  BONES,  both  their 
canals  and   the  areolse  of  the  spongy  portion,  are,  in 
health,  filled  with  marrow,  the  central  canal  with  a  soft 
fat,  and  the  spongy  part  with  a  reddish,  fatty  substance. 
Both  are  oil  deposited  in  nucleated  cells. 

277.  THE  MARROW  OF  THE  BONES  SERVES  to  deaden 
the  effect  of  jars,  and  prevent  them  from  reaching  the 
brain,  and  is  a  stock  of  calorific  matter  that  can  be  taken 
up  to  produce  heat  when  a  supply  cannot  be  had  from 
without,  or,  from  feebleness  of  the  organs,  cannot  be  pre- 
pared from  food. 

Special  Bones  of  the  Body. 


Fig.  157  represents  a  front  and 
Side  view  of  a  skull.  The  forms  of 
the  cranium  and  the  facium  differ 
very  much  in  different  cases.  This 
is  an  advanced  skull,  since  the  suture 
or  joint,  like  that  at  3,  that  in  early 
life  is  exhibited  up  the  centre  of  the 
forehead,  has  been  obliterated  by  the 
right  and  left  FRONTAL  BONKS  becom- 
ing consolidated.  A  similar  suture 
is  sometimes  seen  at  maturity  in  the 
middle  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  lower 
jaws  become  consolidated  at  20,  very 
early.  The  skull  is  in  early  life  lit- 
erally divisible  into  two. 


278.  THE  SKULL  is  composed  of  the  CRANIUM,  in- 
cluding all  above  and  back  of  the  eye-sockets,  and  the 
FACIUM,  added  to  the  lower  part  of  the  Cranium. 


276.  What  said  of  —  ?    277.  What  does  —  ?    What  is  the  effect  of  water  in  a 
tumbler  on  its  vibrations  ?    Describe  Fig.  157.    278.  How  divide  —  ? 


206 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


279.  THE  CRANIUM,  or  brain-case,  is  arched  in  all 
directions  in  which  it  is  exposed  to  danger,  as  that  form 
is  the  best  for  resisting  the  effects  of  blows.     Where  it 
is  covered  by  the  facium  it  is  flat  and  very  irregular. 

280.  THE  THICKNESS  OF  THE  WALLS  OF  THE  CRANIUM 
varies  in  different  cases  and  in  different  parts  of  the 
same  cranium,  from  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  up  to  an 
inch,  averaging  from  an  eighth  to  a  half.     Those  parts 
are  the  thickest  that  are  most  likely  to  receive  blows, 
being  the  back  and  lower  parts. 

FIG.  158. 

Fig.  158  represents  a  cross  section  of 
the  Cranium,  just  in  front  of  its  middle, 
1,  the  PARIETAL  or  side  bone,  jointed  with 
its  opposite,  above,  and  below  bevelled 
within  the  rising  wing,  2,  of  the  SPHE- 
NOID; 3,  its  level  portion;  4,  its  cells. 
The  proportionate  thickness  of  the  Crani- 
um to  its  cavity  is  truthful ;  the  setting 
of  the  arch  above  within  the  buttresses,  2, 
is  also  excellent.  The  central  dark  line 
in  the  walls  above  and  below  is  the  diploe. 

281.  THE  CRANIUM  is  COMPOSED  of  three  TABLES  or 
plates,  an  outer  or  fibrous,  an  inner  or  vitreous,  and  a 
middle,  the  diploe. 

FIG.  159. 


Fig.  159  represents  the 
external  table  removed 
and  the  diploe  brought 
into  view.  It  has  the 
same  spongiform  struc- 
ture as  is  found  in  most 
bones,  with  large  canals 
for  the  location  of  tubes, 
as  illustrated  by  the  figure. 


279.  What  form  has  -?    280.  What  said  of  -?    Describe  Fig.  158.    281.  Ilow 
•?    Describe  Fig.  159. 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    207 

282.  THE  OUTER  TABLE  is  tough,  and  its  edges  very 
irregular,  and  intermatched  or  even  dovetailed. 

283.  THE  INNER  TABLE  is  more  brittle,  and  its  edges 
abut  evenly  by  a  harmonious  joint. 

284.  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  CRANIUM  IN  THREE 
TABLES  of  such  different  characteristics  prevents  blows 
upon  the  head  from  jarring  the  brain,  as  the  tables  will 
not  vibrate  in  harmony,  and  hence  they  deaden  or  scat- 
ter the  effects. 

285.  THE  CRANIUM  is  COVERED  with  a  thin,  dense, 
sinewy  membrane,   called    PERICRANIUM.      It    adheres 
closely  to  the  bones,  but  outwardly  its  fibres  become 
continuous  with  the  areolar  texture  of  the  head. 

286.  THE  CRANIUM  is  LINED  with  a  thicker,  dense, 
sinewy    membrane,    called    DURA-MATER.      It  'adheres 
closely  to  the  bones,  but  on  its  inner  surface,  toward 
the  Brain,  it  is  finished  with  a  layer  of  basement  mem- 
brane, covered  with  a  layer  of  serous  cells,  that  keep 
their  surface  constantly  moistened  with  serum,  and  pre- 
vent any  friction  as  the  brain  moves  against  them. 

287.  THUS  THE  CRANIUM  is  SEEN  TO  BE  a  dome- 
shaped  roof  thrown  over  the  Brain ;   and  if  the  latter 
were  removed  the_  Cranium  would  remain   an  arched 
vault  of  wonderful  beauty,  and  having  a  perfect  finish, 
smooth  and  glairy,  against  which  the   delicate  brain 
might  rest  in  safety. 

Fig.  160  represents  a  section  of  the  head  and  neck  upon  the  middle 
line.  2,  3,  4,  are  the  skull  and  its  three  tables.  The  membrane  covering 
the  Cranium  can  be  distinctly  seen  below  4,  as  it  extends  down  joining  the 
lining  at  the  edge  of  the  hole  in  the  base  of  the  skull,  from  which  it  ex- 
tends up,  lining  the  cranium,  and  down,  lining  the  spinal  canal  of  the  spi- 
nal column  or  back  bone,  within  which,  51,  the  spinal  cord,  cut  off  above, 
is  seen,  not  quite  filling  the  canal.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  canal  its 
lining  can  again  be  traced  and  followed  up  within  the  Cranium  till  it 
reaches  around  to  the  commencing  point. 

Where  the  lining  of  the  Cranium  reaches  its  central  line,  near  where 
the  section  is  made,  it  leaves  the  cranium  and  extends  down  quite  to  the 


282.  Describe  — .     283.  Describe  — .     284.  What  said  of—?     285.  How  —  ? 
286.  How— ?    28T.  What-? 


208 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 
FIG.  160. 


bottom  of  the  front  part,  and  two  thirds  down  the  back  part,  and  down 
tbe  centre  to  the  arched  line  shown,  under  which  connections  between  the 
right  and  left  brains  stretch  across. 

Thus  the  Cranium  is  divided  into  its  right  and  left  cavity.  Into  the 
right  one  the  eye  looks  and  sees  39  and  35,  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  right 
wall  of  the  Cranium.  From  the  form  of  the  partition,  36,  it  is  called  the 
FALX  or  sickle.  From  its  lower  edge  it  extends  back  again  up  to  the  cra- 
nium, joining  it  near  where  it  left  it,  but,  spreading  a  little,  it  leaves  a 
triangular  space,  38,  that  properly  lined  becomes  a  vein,  called  a  sinus. 

From  a  point  against  4  the  lining  also  extends  forward,  arching  upward, 
and  forms  a  shelf  called  TENTORIUM,  to  the  upper  surface  of  which  the 
back  part  of  the  Falx  is  attached.  The  Tentorium  supports  the  back  part 
of  each  large  Brain,  and  covers  and  protects  from  pressure  the  small 
Brains.  The  Falx  supports  the  upper  brain  when  the  head  rests  upon 
either  side.  The  Cranium  is  thus  divided  into  three  cavities,  neither  com- 
pletely closed,  the  two  upper  ones  corresponding  to  and  containing  the 
right  and  left  cerebri,  and  the  lower  one  the  cerebellum. 


Describe  Fi?.  160.    What  relation  has  the  back  of  the  nose  to  the  spinal  col- 
umu?    What  tho  mouth  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    209 

288.*  THE  CRANIUM  is  USUALLY  SAID  TO  BE  COMPOSED 
of  eight  bones,  in  which  two  bones  only  are  considered 
as  double,  and  the  rest  are  looked  upon  as  single.  The 
parietal  and  temporal  are  usually  so  distinct  at  mature 
years  that  they  could  not  be  counted  otherwise  than 
double;  but  during  growth,  and  sometimes  in  mature 
years,  the  suture  up  the  middle  of  the  frontal  bone  is 
distinct,  and  at  an  earlier  period  all  the  bones  are  dis- 
tinctly double. 

FIG.  161. 


Fig.  161  represents  a  side  view  of  the  skull,  with  the  bones  slightly 
separated.  1,  Frontal;  2,  Parietal;  3,  Occipital;  4,  Temporal;  one  not 
numbered,  in  front  of  4,  Sphenoid  ;  one  faintly  represented  below  8,  Eth- 
moid; 5,  Nasal ;  6,  Molar;  7,  Superior  Maxillary  ;  8,  Unguiform;  9,  Infe- 
rior Maxillary.  Between  3  and  4  is  seen  a  small  bone,  several  of  which  are 
apt  to  be  found  in  the  course  of  those  sutures,  or  seam-joints.  They  are 
named  Ossa-triquetra. 

289.  THE  BEST  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  BONES  OF 
THE  CRANIUM,  being  most  philosophical,  is  that  which 
makes  twelve  of  them,  six  right  and  six  left ;  for  some 
of  the  sutures  are  obliterated  early,  others  later,  and 


288.  How  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  161.    Which  bones  are  shown,  tho  right  or  left? 
289.  What  is— ? 


210  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

sometimes  all  are,  leaving  the  cranium  one  bone.    For  de- 
scription of  each  bone,  see  Plates  and  their  descriptions. 

290.  THE  CRANIUM  HAS  NO  OPENINGS  above ;  those 
it  has  are  all  below,  and  in  a  very  small  space,  for  the 
transmission  of  Nerves  and  Blood-tubes.      (See  Plate 
11,  Figs.  5,6.) 

291.  THE    SPHENOID,  ETHMOID,   AND    (in   males) 
FRONTAL  BONES  have  cavities  in  them  called  cells  (see 
Fig.  148,  and  Fig.  4,  PI.  11),  the  precise  use  of  which  is 
not  known,  except  it  may  be  to  enlarge  the  bones  with- 
out increasing  their  substance. 

292.  THE  FACIAL  BONES  ARE  very  irregularly  shaped, 
and  attached  to  the  lower  front  portion  of  the  Cranium, 
forming  various  cavities  for  the  lodgment  of  the  organs 
of  sense,  and  those  required  in  mastication. 

293.  THE  FACIAL  BONES  CAN  BE  BEST  DESCRIBED  in 
connection  with  the  organs  for  which  they  are  construct- 
ed, except  as  they  are  described  in  connection  with  the 
Plates. 

294.  IT  is  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  PARTICULAR,  by  means 
of  the  preceding  cut,  that  the  lower  portion  of  (7)  the 
upper  jaw-bone,  that  extends  up  by  the  side  of  the  nos- 
trils hangs  down  some  distance  below  the  bottom  of  the 
Cranium,  and  of  course  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  is  still 
lower. 

295.  Hence,  if  the  skull  is  placed  upon  the  spinal 
column,  the  eye  could  look  through  the  cavity  of  the 
nose  against  the  upper  part  of  the  column,  or  if  the  fin- 
gers should  be  passed  up  behind  the  facium  and  in  front 
of  the  spinal  column,  and  turned  forward,  they  would  en- 
ter tiie  passages  for  the  nose.     The  same  IDEA  is  ILLUS- 
TRATED BY  FIG.  160. 

296.  THE  OBJECT  OP  TAKING  PARTICULAR  NOTICE  OP 
THE  NASAL  BONES,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  hang 
from  the  Cranium,  is  to  understand  the  relation  of  the 


290.  Wh«re  —  ?     291.  What  have  —  ?     292.  What  said  —  ?     293.  How  —  ? 
294  What— ?    295.  What  — ?    296.  What— ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    211 

passages  through  the  nose  and  mouth  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  throat  or  pharynx,  that  extends  up  in  front  of  the 
spinal  column,  and  between  it  and  the  facium,  to  the 
under  surface  of  the  cranium. 

297.  IT  is  ALSO  WORTHY  OF  NOTICE  HERE  that  a  part 
(Petrous)  of  the  TEMPORAL  bone,  in  which  the  internal 
ear  is  wrought,  is  connected  by  an  arm  with  the  facium 
(Fig.  1,  PL  9),  and,  properly  speaking,  is  to  be  counted 
as  a  part  of  it. 

298.  THE   PETROUS   is  FORMED  distinct  from  tthe 
temporal  bone,  and  afterwards,  in  man,  consolidates  with 
it,  though  it  does  not  in  all  animals ;    and  as  it  con- 
tains organs  of  sense,  and  is  constructed  with  reference 
to  them,  it  is  to  be  classed  with  the  facium,  constructed 
for  similar  reasons. 

299.  THE   EIGHT   BONES   OF  THE  EAR  MAY  BE  DE- 
SCRIBED in  connection  with  that  organ. 

300.  THE  SKULL  NEEDS  BUT  TWO  MOVABLE  JOINTS, 
similar,  since  they  unite  the  lower  jaw  to  its  sockets. 


FIG.  162. 


Fig.  162  represents  the  joint  of  the 
lower  jaw,  that  is  very  curious  on  ac- 
count of  the  friction  cartilage  6,  intro- 
duced in  the  joint  at  3,  there  being  a 
lubricating  space  above  and  below  it. 
This  is  required  on  account  of  the  great 
and  frequent  pressure  produced  here  in 
eating. 


301.  Remark. — SOMETIMES  in  gaping  this  bone  slips  forward,  and 
the  jaw  cannot  be  raised.    Press  the  back  part  of  the  jaw  down  and 
backward  with  sufficient  force  to  carry  it  into  place. 

302.  Inf. — Very  little  CARTILAGE  OR  gristle,  very  little  SINEWY  TIS- 
SUE in  the  form  of  ligaments,  is  REQUIRED  BY  the  construction  of  THE 

SKULL. 


29T.  What— ?    299.  How  — ?    299.  When  —  ?    300.  What— ?    Describe  Fig. 
162.    801.  What  the  effect  of  gaping— ?    802.  What— ? 


212  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

303.  THE  CRANIUM  is  FORMED  by  the  deposit  of 
earthy  matter  in  a  thick  membrane,  that  at  the  same 
time  loses  its  fibrous  character. 

304.  THE  PROCESS  OF  CHANGING  THE  MEMBRANE  into 
bone  is  not  completed  at  birth ;  hence  the  soft  spot,  fon- 
tanelle,  on  the  top  of  the  head,  that  gradually  closes  •  by 
the  continued  process. 

305.  THE  PROCESS  OF  DEPOSITING  THE  EARTHY  MAT- 
TER commences  at  several  points,  called  points  of  ossifi- 
ca^ion,  in  each  (the  right  and  left)  bone,  and  proceeds 
till  the  edges  of  the  bone  are  reached ;  and  in  the  outer 
table,  points  of  an  irregular  shape  mutually  extend  across 
the  line  and  interlock,  as  represented  by  the  sutures. 

Vertebral  Column. 

306.  THE  VERTEBRAL  COLUMN  is  a  strong,  elastic 
column  of  bones  called  vertebra,  and  cartilages,  from 
their  position  between  the  vertebras  called  the  interver- 
tebral  substances,  the  whole  bound  together  in  addition 
by  numerous  ligaments  (see  Fig.  6,  PI.  16). 

307.  THE  TWO  UPPER  VERTEBRAE  (indeed,  they  can 
hardly  be  called  vertebrae)  are  worthy  of  a  distinct  de- 
scription. 

308.  THE  UPPER  VERTEBRA  is  CALLED  Atlas  because, 
as  the  god  sustained  the  world,  so  does  this  bone  sustain 
the  head  upon  its  two  shoulders,  to  which  it  is  so  jointed 
as  to  allow  the  nodding  motion  of  the  head. 

309.  THE   SECOND  VERTEBRA  is   NAMED  dentatus, 
from  the  tooth-like  process  or  pivot  that  extends  up 
from  it  through  the  central  hole  in  the  atlas  above,  a 
ligament  passing  across  from  side  to  side  of  the  atlas 
behind  the  pivot,  and  thus  separating  it  from  the  canal 
proper  in  which  the  spinal  cord  is  located.     A  ligament 
also  extends  from  the  upper  point  of  the  pivot  to  the 


80S.  How  —  T     304,  What  said  of  — ?     805.  What  is  —  ?     806.  What  is  —  ? 
807.  What  said  of-?    808.  What— ?    809.  What-? 


SYSTEMATig   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES    INTO    ORGANS.    213 

skull,  binding  both  atlas  and  dentatus  to  the  skull, 
yet  allowing  sufficient  motion  to  each  (see  Fig.  5,  4, 
PI.  16). 

310.  THE  USE  OF  THE  DENTATUS  is  to  allow  a  rotary 
motion  to  the  head,  as  in  negation. 

311.  THE  TWENTY-TWO  LOWER  VERTEBRAE  are  very 
similar  to  each  other  in  all  general  respects,  increasing 
in  size  and  thickness   from  top  to  bottom  (see  PI.  12, 
13).    They  are  composed  of  body,  arches,  and  seven  pro- 
cesses. 

312.  THE  BODIES  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE  are  cylindrical 
blocks  of  bone,  slightly  flattened,  or  even  concave,  on 
the  back,  not  very  dense  at  the  surface,  and  spongifonn 
within. 

313.  INTERVERTEBRAL  SUBSTANCES  situated  between 
the  vertebra?,  as  represented  in  the  figures,  are  fibro-car- 
tilages,  having  but   few  cells,  the  fibres  woven  very 
densely  at  and  near  the  margin,  but  not  as  closely  to- 
ward and  in  the  centre,  the  minute  meshes  being  filled 
with  serous  moisture  and  chondrine. 

FIG.  163. 

Fig.  163  represents 
a  section  of  one  and 
part  of  another  verte- 
bra with  the  interven- 
ing cartilage,  of  which 
1  represents  the  fibres 
curving  outward,  2, 
curving  inward,  and 
3,  the  more  yielding 
centre,  containing  car- 
tilage cells.  It  is, 
therefore,  both  liga- 
ment and  cartilage. 

314.  THE  ELASTICITY  OF  THE  INTERVERTEBRAL  SUB- 
STANCES is  their  interesting  and   useful   characteristic. 
They  possess  a  much  greater  degree  of  firmness  than 
India  rubber,  and  considerable  pressure  is  required  to 


310.  What— ?   811.  What  said  of  —  ?  812.  What  said  of— ?  81&  What  said  of  -? 
Describe  Fig.  163.    314.  What  said  of  —  ? 


214  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

make  them  yield  or  to  put  them  on  the  stretch.  They 
have  a  double  elasticity,  and  equally  tend  to  restore 
themselves  whether  compressed  or  stretched,  to  lift  the 
Body  up  when  bent  forward,  and  to  pull  it  up  when 
bent  back,  or  to  do  both  when  it  is  bent  to  either  side. 
They,  of  course,  grow  tenaciously  to  the  vertebrae  above 
and  below  them. 

315.  THE  BODIES   OF  THE  VERTEBRAE   AND    THEIR 
CARTILAGES  FORM  a  tapering  column  of  alternate  thick 
discs  of  resisting  bone  and  thin  discs  of  yielding  elastic 
cartilage,  that,  viewed  in  front  or  behind,  should  appear 
straight,  but  to  a  side  view  should  present  the  several 
curves  Fig.  1,  PI.  12,  which  are  owing  to  the  varying 
thicknesses  of  the  back  and  front  part  of  the  bodies  and 
cartilages,  and  are  necessary  for  giving  proper  form  to 
the  cavities  of  the  Trunk,  carrying  the  head  without  jar 
and  flexing  the  column  with  ease. 

316.  THE  ARCHES  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE  are  thin  por- 
tions of  bone  extending  from  the  sides  of  the  back  part 
of  the  bodies  and  arching  around  so  as  to  enclose  a 
space,  hole,  or  foramen,  about  as  large  as  a  thumb,  so 
that  in  the  column  there  is  a  spinal  canal  back  of  the 
bodies ;  in  this  the  spinal  cord  is  located. 

317.  A  NOTCH  EXISTS  in  each  side  of  the  arch  close 
by  the  body  (see  preceding  Fig.).     Through  this  notch 
the  corresponding  nerve  extends. 

318.  THE   ARTICULATING  PROCESSES  are  small  por- 
tions of  bone  extending  up  and  down  from  the  arches 
just  back  of  the  notches.     The  upper  processes  being 
adapted  to  the  lower  ones  of  the  vertebra  above,  a  joint 
is  formed,  that,  in  the  preceding  Fig.,  is  represented  as 
surrounded  by  a  capsular  ligament,  J,  binding  them  to- 
gether, yet  allowing  motion.     It  is  lined  by  synovial 
membrane,  and  a  thin  cartilage  covers  the  surfaces  of  the 
processes.     It  is  called  the  spinal  pivot-joint. 

815.  What  do  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  8,  PI.  12.   816.  What  are  -  ?   81T.  Where  does 
>-?    818.  What  are  —  ?    Describe  articulating  processes,  shown  PI.  12. 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    215 
FIG.  164.  Fio.  165. 


Fig.  164  represents  the  spinal  column,  curved  in  the  region  of  the  chest^ 
as  the  result  of  pressure  upon  its  cartilages.  The  line,  a,  shows  the  point 
to  which  the  column  would  reach  if  its  cartilages  were  natural.  Fig.  165 
represents,  3,  the  cartilage  extended  ;  Fig.  166,  the  same,  3  compressed  ; 
the  spinous  processes,  s,  being  made  to  approach  in  the  former  case,  and 
to  separate  in  the  latter. 


216  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

319.  THE  PIVOT-JOINTS  OF  THE  SPINAL  COLUMN  are 
the  pivots  upon  which  the  vertebrae  turn ;  so  that  when 
the  column  is  bent  forward,  the  whole  thickness  of  the 
intervertebral  substance  must  be  compressed  (see  pre- 
ceding Fig.),  and  when  the  column  is  bent  backward, 
the  whole  substance  is  stretched,  though  in  each  case 
the  front  part  is  a  little  more  affected  than  the  back  part. 

320.  Thus    THE    VERTEBRAE    OF    THE    SPINAL   COLUMN 

are  a  series  of  levers  with  an  elastic  prop  under  their 
front  end ;  and  when  all  these  props  yield,  the  front  ends 
of  the  levers  approach  and  tend  to  form  a  circle ;  the 
length  of  the  column,  if  measured  through  the  pivot- 
joints,  being  the  same  in  each  position,  but  the  apparent 
height  of  the  person  becoming  so  much  less  as  the  thick- 
ness of  the  props  is  lessened. 

321.  CONTINUED  PRESSURE  UPON  THE  INTERVERTE- 
BRAL SUBSTANCES  tends  to  make  them  permanently  thin- 
ner, and  repose  after  action  tends  to  restore  them.     Al- 
ternate pressure  and  repose  promotes  their  highest  degree 
of  perfection. 

322.  Illus. — At  night  a  person  is  not  quite  as  tall  as  in  the  morn- 
ing.   By  a  long  horseback-ride  the  height  will  be  lessened  for  a  tune.   A 
French  physiologist  says  a  son  lost  an  inch  during  one  night's  dancing. 
A  professor  informs  the  author  that,  during  a  hunting  excursion  from  8 
till  4,  he  lost  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  that  was  not  regained  till  the 
second  morning  after.     Usually  one  quarter  to  one  half  inch  is  lost  du- 
ring the  day. 

323.  Inf. — THE  ERECTNESS  OF  FORM  MUST  USUALLY  BE  DEPENDENT 
upon  the  condition  of  the  intervertebral  substances. 

324.  THE  CAUSES  OF  CONTINUED  DEFORMING  PRES- 
SURE upon  the  intervertebral  substances  are,  holding  one 
position  too  long,  and  tight  clothing.  The  latter  is  the 
chief  cause. 

325.  Inf. — AN  ERECT  POSTURE  too  long  continued  is  not  as  b»4  as 
any  other  position. 


819.Wliatare-?  820.  What  said  of —  as levers?  321.  What  said  of -?  822.  Il- 
lustrate.   823.  On  what  —  ?    824.  What  are  —  ?    825.  What  said  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    217 
326.       To    PREVENT  DEFORMING   PRESSURE    UPON  THE 

INTERVEHTEBRAL  SUBSTANCES,  let  the  clothing  be  free 
and  easy;  occasionally  change  the  position  of  the  body, 
and  frequently  take  repose  in  a  reclining  posture,  if  the 
health  is  delicate. 

327.  Remark. — WHEN  A  CHILD,  MORE  PARTICULARLY  A  YOUTH,  is 
GROWING  rapidly,  especially  if  of  light  complexion,  the  cartilages  do 
not  as  rapidly  become  firm,  nor  ought  they,  for  several  reasons  that  will 
be  given  under  the  various  heads  to  which  they  belong,  to  sustain  the 
spinal  column  erect  under  those  circumstances :  they  will  readily  yield, 
and  the  column  appear  curved  forward  about  the  shoulders.  If  it  does 
not  curve  laterally  no  matter  (it  seldom  will  unless  badly  treated) ;  as 
soon  as  the  child  is  older  and  the  cartilage  hardened,  erectness  will  be 
regained,  if  the  clothing  is  not  allowed  to  constrict  nor  any  one  position 
to  fatigue  him.  He  should  also  have  much  time  for  reclining  repose. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  clothing  is  tight,  and  apparatus  worn  or  injunc- 
tions laid  down,  to  maintain  one  position,  the  cartilages  will  be  sure  to 
yield  upon  the  sides,  and  unfortunate  lateral  curvatures  will  result,  that 
will  be  with  great  difficulty,  if  at  all,  corrected.  Nature,  Nature,  NATURE, 
give  NATURE  play,  and  she  will  reward  the  deference  with  Htheness  of 
motion,  graceful  elasticity,  and  the  thousand  blessings  she  is  in  the 
habit  of  bestowing  upon  her  followers. 

Inf. — The  seats  upon  which  scholars  sit  should  be  easy,  with  backs 
sloping  at  a  proper  angle,  while  children  should  also  have  frequent  re- 
cesses, or  stand  or  move  about,  nor  be  required  to  maintain  the  same 
position  for  an  hour  at  a  time. 

328.  THE  SPINOUS  PROCESSES  are  portions  of  bone 
extending  from  the  back  point  of  the  arches,  being  short, 
inclining  downward*  a  little,  in  case  of  the  upper  seven 
(very  small  in  case  of  the  upper  two),  and  allowing  con- 
siderable backward  motion,  longer  and  inclining  down- 
ward very  much  in  case  of  the  next  twelve  and  allowing 
but  slight  backward  motion,  and  in  the  lowest  five  ex- 
tending straight  back,  short  and  stout,  and  allowing 
extended  backward  motion ;  therefore, 

329.  THE  VERTEBRAE  ARE  SUBDIVIDED  into  Cervical 
(neck),  Dorsal  (back),  that  correspond  to  the  ribs,  and 
of  course  chest,  and  the  Lumbar  (loin). 

826.  How  —  ?    327.  What  said  —  ?    What  will  ensure  curvature?    What  said 
of  seats  ?    823.  What  are  —  ?    829.  How  —  ? 
10 


218  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

330.  THE  LATERAL  OB  TRANSVERSE  PROCESSES  are 
short  portions  of  bone  that  extend  from  each  side  of  the 
back  part    of  the  arches  of  the  vertebrae,  for  the  attach- 
ment of  ligaments,  tendons,  and  especially  in  the  dorsal 
region  for  the  attachment  of  the  ribs.     (Fig.  7,  PI.  16.) 

331.  THE  SACRUM,  so  called  because  by  some  of  the 
ancients  considered  sacred  and  offered  in  sacrifices,  is  a 
part  of  the  spinal  column  in  one  sense,  and  in  another 
is  a  part  upon  which  the  spinal  column  may  be  said  to 
rest. 

332.  THE  SACRUM  is  COMPOSED  of  five  vertebrae, 
consolidated  into   one  triangular  bone,  wedged  both 
downward  and  backward  between  the  hip-bones.     (See 
Fig.  2,  PL  14.) 

333.  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  SACRUM  is  very  even, 
presenting  a  gentle  curve  on  the  inside,  and  very  uneven 
and  irregular  on  the  backside,  affording  attachment  to 
numerous  ligaments  and  tendons. 

334.  THE  CENTRE  OF  THE  SACRUM  is  OCCUPIED  by 
the  lower  portion  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  has  several 
pairs  of  holes  in  its  front  and  back  surfaces  for  the  posi- 
tion of  nerves. 

335.  THE  SACRUM  is  FASTENED  TO  AND  SEPARATED 
FROM  THE  LOWEST  LUMBAR  VERTEBRAE  by  a  decidedly 
wedge-shaped   intervertebral    substance,   which   makes 
the  twenty-third  in  the  spinal  column. 

336.  THE  COXCYX  is  in  one  sense  the  termination 
of  the  Sacrum,  being  composed  of  four  small  bones, 
sometimes  ossified  into  one  with  the  Sacrum,  but  usually 
having  one  or  more  limited  joints.     (See  Fig.  1,2,  PL  13.) 

337.  THE  LIGAMENTS  OF  THE  SPINAL  COLUMN  are  few. 
There  are  twenty-four  pairs  of  yellow,  sinewy,  and  of 
course  elastic  ligaments  extending  between  the  upper 
and  lower  edges  of  the  back  part  of  the  arches  of  the 
vertebrae.     A  broad  ligament  extends  from  the   skull 

880.  What  ire  —  ?    881.  What  is  —  ?    832.  How  is  —  ?    838.  What  said  of  —  ? 
834.  How  -?    885.  How  —  ?    386.  What  -  ?    337.  What  said  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    219 

down  the  front  surface  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  to 
the  very  extremity  of  the  coxcyx  (see  Fig.  6,  PI.  16), 
and  another  is  found  on  the  back  face  of  the  bodies,  that 
is,  within  the  canal.  Several  others  exist,  of  minor  im- 
portance. 


C  Cervical     =    7  Vertebrae  =  \  K 

Dorsal        =12 

I  u 

SPINAL  COLUMN  DIVISIONS  =  -j  Lumbar     =    #          " 

|  Sacral        =    5 

consolidated. 

^  Coxcygeal  =4          " 

rudimentary. 

'Bones          = 

Vertebrae 

=     Bony  T. 

SPINAL  COLUMN  H 

Cartilages    = 

Intervertebral 
Articular 

Whitp 

•  =     Gristly  T. 

composed  of 

Ligaments   = 

vv  line. 

Yellow 

=     Sinewy  T. 

Synovial  Membrane 

j  Secretory  T. 
~  }  Sinewy  T. 

338.  Thus  THE  SPINAL  COLUMN  FINISHED  stands  be- 
fore us  one  of  the  most  admirable  pieces  of  mechanism 
the  mind  can  contemplate,  exceedingly  strong  yet  beau- 
tifully elastic  by  means  of  its  curvatures  and  cushions, 
securely  protecting,  at  the  same  time,   in  its  flexible 
canal  the  vital  spinal  cord,  and  affording,  though  so  neat 
and  compact,  ample  surface  for  the  attachment  of  all 
the  ligaments  and  tendons  that  are  adapted  to  produce 
or  limit  its  motions.    Resting  upon  it,  the  head  is  carried 
without  ajar;  and  hanging  upon  it,  all  the  delicate  vital 
organs  enclosed  in  the  walls  of  the  trunk  are  carried 
with  equal  safety. 

339.  THE  RIBS,  12  in  number  (sometimes  10,  some- 
times 14),  SERVE  the  purpose  of  levers  in  controlling 
motions  of  the  spinal  column,  and  as  a  framework  to 
enclose  and  protect  the  organs  of  the  Chest. 

340.  THE  RIBS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  with  very  irregular 
forms,  and  singularly  adapted  by  their  peculiarities  to 
be  strong,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are  very  light. 

341.  THE  RIBS  ARE  ATTACHED  by  a  head  to  a  socket, 
formed  in  the  back  part  of  the  sides  of  the  bodies  of  each 


Describe  Fig.  5,  PL  1 6.    Write  table  of  Div.    Write  2d  table.    338.  What  said — ? 
9.  What  do  —  ?    840.  How  —  ?    341.  How  —  ? 


220  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

of  two  adjoining  vertebrae,  and  in  the  substance  between 
them. 

342.  From  their  union  with  the  vertebrae  THE  BIBS 
CURVE  back  and  down,  forming  a  joint  with  the  trans- 
verse process  of  the  lower  vertebrae  (see  Figs.  7  and  8, 
PI.  16),  after  which  they  begin  to  make  a  circuit,  sweep- 
ing down  and  around,  as  shown  by  Pis.  12  and  13,  form- 
ing the  frame  of  the  chest,  and  standing  out  like  levers 
for  mus*cles  to  seize  upon  and  control  the  movements  of 
the  spinal  column  and  all  its  dependent  parts. 

343.  THE  LENGTH  OP  THE  RIBS  increases  from  the 
first  to  the  eighth,  and  from  it  to  the  last  they  diminish. 

344.  A  CURIOUS  GROOVE  is  found  just  within  the 
lower  edge  of  the  ribs,  within  which  is  lodged  the  costal 
artery,  that  is  thus  admirably  protected  from  injury,  and 
also  kept  warm. 

345.  THE  FRONT  ENDS  OF  THE  RIBS  are  continuous 
with  their  cartilages,  which  increase  in  length  from  the 
first  to  the  seventh,  and  then  diminish. 

346.  THE  INCLINATION  OF  THE  RIB  (costal)  CARTI- 
LAGES is  down  in  case  of  the  first,  horizontal  in  case  of 
the  second,  and  upward  in  case  of  the  rest. 

347.  THE  JOINTS  OF  THE  COSTAL  CARTILAGES  are,  in 
case  of  the  first  pair,  immovable,  they  growing  directly 
to  the  breast-bone  (Sternum)  ;   the  next  six  pairs  have 
movable  joints,  and  are  bound  by  ligaments  to  the  ster- 
num (see  Fig.  2,  PL"  18) ;   the  next  three  pairs  of  car- 
tilages are  pointed  and  joined   by  continuation   with 
those  above ;  while  the  lower  two  are  but  tips  to  their 
ribs,  that  are  hence  called  free  or  floating  ribs,  since  only 
one  end  is  fastened. 

348.  THE  STERNUM  or  breast-bone  is  in  early  life 
composed  of  two  bones  and  a  cartilaginous  point.     The 
former  are  soon  ossified  into  one,  and  the  point  usually 
follows  in  the  same  course  by  the  prime  of  life. 


842.  How  do  —  ?  343.  What  said  —  ?   844.  Where  —  ?    845.  How  —  ?  84C.  What 
said  —  ?    847.  What  said  —  ?    848.  What  said  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    221 

349.  THE  STERNUM  INCLINES  outward  at  its  lower 
extremity  when  natural. 

350.  A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  FRAME  OF  THE  CHEST 

SHOWS  (see  Fig.  4,  PL  13),  that  its  back  part  is  compos- 
ed of  the  dorsal  portion  of  the  Spinal  Column,  and  a 
portion  of  the  ribs  that  curve  backward  before  they  ex- 
tend along  the  sides  of  the  chest,  which  they  alone  form, 
in  front  it  being  formed  of  the  ribs,  their  cartilages,  and 
the  sternum. 

351.  THE  CHEST  IN  FORM  is  a  double  cone,  the  larg- 
est circumference  being  about  the  middle  of  it.     It  is 
flattened  in  front  and  also  behind ;  is  shortest  in  front 
and  longest  on  the  sides. 

352.  THE  CHEST  is  PARTIALLY  DIVIDED  into  right 
and  left  by  the  body  of  the  spinal  column,  the  front  sur- 
face of  which  is  situated  nearly  one  half  the  distance 
from  the  surface  of  the  backward  curving  ribs  and  the 
sternum. 

353.  THE  FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  CHEST  is  OPEN  above, 
where  the  opening  is  surrounded  by  the  vertebras,  ribs, 
and  sternum,  and  on  the  sides  between  and  below  the 
ribs,  where  the  opening  is  almost  the  full  size  of  the 
Chest.     It  has  a  singular  outline,  and  is  worthy  of  so 
much  study  as  shall  make  it  familiar. 

354.  THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF  THE  FRAME   OF    THE 
CHEST,  and  the  applicability  of  it,  is  most  ingenious  and 
admirable.     Its  strength,  from  the  arched  form  of  the 
ribs  and  the  condensed  air  when  the  windpipe  is  closed, 
is  exceedingly  great.     The  violence  it  can  receive  with- 
out injury  is  astonishing. 

355.     Illus. — A  loaded  wagon  passed  over  the  chest  of  a  man  with- 
out fracturing  a  rib. 

356.     Being  built  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal 

Column,  THE  CHEST  IS  PERFECTLY  ADAPTED  to  be  the  SUp- 

port  of  the  upper  extremities,  setting  them  out  from  the 

349.  How  does  -?  360.  What  does  —  ?  351.  What  -?  352.  How  -?  358.  How 
—  ?    354.  What  said  of  —  ?    355.  Illustrate.    356.  To  what  —  ? 


222  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

spinal  column,  and  adding  to  their  own  extent  of  mo- 
bility. 

357.  But  THE  MOST  WONDERFUL  THING  in  the  chest 
framework  is  its  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  motions  de- 
manded of  it ;  for  to  the  perfection  of  structure  for  move- 
ment in  the  spinal  column  it  adds  its  own  by  means  of 
the  form  of  its  ribs,  their  joints  and  cartilages. 

358.  THE  CAPACITY  OF  THE  CHEST  is  INCREASED  OR 
DIMINISHED  by  simply  raising  or  depressing  the   ribs, 
and  in  either  case  the  elasticity  of  their  cartilages  will 
at  once  restore  them. 

359.  THE    INTERVERTEBRAL   SUBSTANCES    can   also 
be  made  to  lend  aid  in  increasing  and  diminishing  the 
capacity  of  the  chest,  for  when  they  are  put  upon  the 
stretch  by  raising  the  spinal  column,  or  compressed  by 
curving  it,  the  ribs  have  so  much  the  greater  extent  of 
motion.  . 

360.  THE  EXQUISITE  ADAPTATION  OP  THE  FRAME- 
WORK OF  THE  CHEST  is  worthy  the  contemplation  of 
every  studious  mind,  for  it  is  truly  wonderful  that  so 
much  flexibility  of  motion  should  be  combined  with  such 
stability;   that  such  complexity  of  results   should  be 
gained  by  such  simplicity  of  construction. 

361.  THE  CARTILAGES  OF  THE  CHEST,  like  those  of 
other  parts,  CAN  ONLY  BE  KEPT  IN  GOOD  CONDITION  by 
alternate  activity  and  repose ;  and  continued  pressure  or 
disuse  will  despoil  them  of  all  their  beautiful  properties, 
uses,  and  results. 

362.  TIGHT  CLOTHING  impedes  the  action  of  some, 
and  subjects  others  to  constant  pressure,  the  result  of 
which  is  diminished  capacity  for  breathing,  with  all  its 
dire  results  to  the  complexion,  the  expression,  the  activ- 
ity of  mind,  etc.,  and  incapacity  for  graceful  movements, 
that  are  always  dependent  as  a  sine  qua  non  upon  the 
elasticity  of  cartilage. 


857.  What  in  the  chest  —  ?    858.  How  —  ?    859.  What  —  aid  from  ?    860.  What 
said  —  ?    861.  How  —  ?    862.  What  said  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    223 
FIG.  167.  FIG.  168. 


363.  THE  FIGURES  REPRESENT  a  good  and  a  con- 
stricted Chest.      With  the  former,  health  and  beauty, 
grace  of  movement,  and  a  lively  expression,  are  compati- 
ble, but  are  not  possible  in  connection  with  the  latter. 

364.  THE  WORST  MISTAKE  THAT  CAN  BE  MADE  is  to 
try  to  improve  personal  appearance  by  constricting  the 
size  or  action  of  the  chest.     TIGHT  CLOTHING  is  A  BANE 

TO  BEAUTY. 

365.  Remark. — It  does  not  by  any  means  follow  that  a  natural  de- 
velopment of  the  chest  will  be  attended  with  every  desirable  excellence. 
It  is  NOT  DENIED  that  some  beauties  may  exist  in  connection  with  a  com- 
pressed chest,  nor  that  those  may  be  found  who  with  chest  compressed 
are  more  attractive  than  some  whose  chests  are  not.     But  what  is  AS- 
SERTED, is,  that  those  who  are  at  all  attractive  with  the  chest  compressed 
will  be  infinitely  more  so  with  the  chest  properly  expanded ;  that  the 
true  way  to  improve  personal  appearance  is  to  develop  as  far  as  possible 
the  elasticity  of  the  cartilages  of  the  chest  and  its  mobility.     It  is  as- 
serted and  CANNOT,  either  theoretically  or  practically,  BE  CONTROVERTED, 
that  constricting  the  chest  will  deform ;  while  the  form  and  movements 
of  the  chest  can  be  improved  by  easy  clothing  and  appropriate  exercise. 

366.  IT  IS  THEREFORE  NOT  ONLY  SELF-TORTURE,  SELF- 
MURDER,  AND  A  SIN,  TO  CONSTRICT   THE    CHEST,  BUT   IT   IS 
A  MOST   UNFORTUNATE    SACRIFICE    OF   PERSONAL   APPEAR- 
ANCE. 


863.  What  do  Figs.  167  and  168  — ?    364.  What  is  — ?    365.  What  — ?   What—? 
What  —  ?    366.  To  constrict  chest  is  what  ? 


224  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

Lower  Extremities. 

367.  THE  HIP  OR  INNOMINATE   (no  name)  BONES 
are  two,  of  very  irregular  shape,  and  consolidated  from 
three,  the  Ilium,  Ischium,  and  Pubis,  which,  together 
with  the  Sacrum,  form  a  bony  ring  or  bowl  without  a 
bottom,  called  the  pelvis.     (See  Fig.  1,  PL  14.) 

368.  THE  HIP-BONES  ARE  STRONGLY  BOUND  by  liga- 
ments to  each  side  of  the  Sacrum,  and  curving  round 
are  united  in  front  by  an  immovable  joint  on  the  central 
line  of  the  body,  called  the  pubic  symphysis. 

369.  THE  INNER  SURFACE   OF   THE    HIP-BONES    is 
smooth  though  irregular,  and  adapted  to  support  the 
organs  found  within  them ;  the  external  surface  is  very 
uneven  and  irregular,  adapted  to  give  attachment  to 
numerous  muscles. 

FIG.  169. 


Fig.  169  represents  a  section  of  the  pelvis  (through  its  sockets)  and  the 
heads  of  the  thigh-bones,  showing  the  outline  of  the  form  of  the  outer  and 
inner  surfaces  at  those  points,  and  1,  2,  the  spongiform  structure  of  the  in- 
ternal part  of  the  hip  and  thigh  bones.  5,  Femoral  artery  and  vein. 

370.       IN     THE     OUTER     SURFACE     OF    THE     HIP-BONES 

THERE  is  EXCAVATED  a  deep  socket,  the  deepest  in  the 
body,  into  which  the  thigh-bone  is  fastened  by  a  central 


867.  What— ?    868.  How— ?    369.  What  said  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  169.     What 
in  the  cancelli  ?    870.  What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS    OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    225 

round  ligament  and  a  surrounding  capsular  ligament. 
(See  Fig.  2,  PI.  17.) 

371.  THE  THIGH-BONE  (Femur)  is  CONSTRUCTED  of 
a  hemispherical  head,  an  adjoining  neck,  and  a  long  shaft 
that  has  two  eminences  above,  called  the  greater  and 
smaller  trochanters,  and  is  furnished  at  the  knee  with 
two  enlargements,  called  internal  and  external  condyles. 
The  head  and  condyles  are  covered   with   cartilages. 
(See  Figs.  3,  4,  PI.  14.) 

372.  THE  FBMUB  is  CONNECTED   by  a   hinge-joint 
to  the  shin-bone  (Tibia),  enlarged  very  much  at  its  up- 
per extremity  that  it  may  assist  in  making  a  strong  joint. 

373.  THE  BONES  AT  THE  KNEE  ARE  BOUND  TOGETHER 
in  the  strongest  manner  by  several  ligaments ;  so  that, 
though  the  knee  is  one  of  the  most  exposed  parts  of  the 
body,  its  bones  are  seldom  dislocated.     (See  Figs.  3,  4, 
5,  6,  PI.  17.) 

374.  THE  KNEE  is  SUBJECT  to  so  much  forcible  ac- 
tion, that  it  is  supplied  with  a  friction   cartilage  and  an 
extra  quantity  of  membrane  to  secrete   synovial  fluid. 
(See  Fig.  6,  PI.  17.) 

375.  THE  KNEE-PAN  (Patella,  Rotulla),  is  not  any 
part  of  the  knee-joint,  but  is  connected  with  a  tendon  of 
a  muscle  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  advantageous  action. 

376.  BY  THE  SIDE  OF  THE  TIBIA,  in  the  lower  leg,  is 
another  slender  bone  (Fibula),  that  is  united  to  the  tibia 
just  below  the  knee,  sometimes  by  a  movable  and  some- 
times by  an  immovable  joint. 

377.  THE  TIBIA  AND  FIBULA  ARE  BOUND  TOGETHER 
throughout  their  extent  by  a  broad  ligament,  that  also 
presents  its  surfaces  for  the  attachment  of  muscles. 

378.  THE  ANKLE-JOINT  is  CHIEFLY  CONSTRUCTED  of 
the  tibia  and  ankle-bone  of  the  foot  (Astragalus),  though 
the  fibula  is  also  essential,  and  forms  the  outer  ankle,  con- 
fining the  ankle-bone  in  its  place.     (See  Fig.  8,  PI.  17). 

871.  How  —  ?    372.  How  —  ?    3T3.  How  —  ?    374.  To  what  —  ?    375.  What  said 
of  -  ?    376.  What  -  ?     377.  How  -  ?    378.  How  -  ? 
10* 


226 


DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 
FIG.  170. 


Fig.  170  represents  bones  of  lower  leg.  1,  Tibia ;  4,  surface,  joined  to 
thigh-bone;  2,  point  of  inner  ankle  (internal  maleolus);  9,  Fibula;  10,  end 
attached  to  tibia;  11,  (external  maleolar  process)  outer  ankle. 

379.  THE  ANKLE  (tarsus)  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  seven 
bones,  of  which  only  one  enters  into  the  ankle-joint. 
The  ankle-bone  (Astragalus)  joins  and  rests  upon  the 
heel-bone  (Calcaneum)  behind,  and  the  boat-shaped 
(Scaphoid)  bone  in  front,  which  is  jointed  in  front  to 
the  three  wedge-shaped  (cuneiform)  bones,  the  outer 
one  of  which  is  jointed  to  the  cnbe-shaped  (cuboid) 
bone  that  reaches  back  to  the  calcaneum. 
FIG.  in. 


Fig.  171  represents,  1,  lower  end  of 
tibia ;  2,  fibulae ;  3, 3,  astragalus ;  4,  cal- 
caneum ;  5,  cuboid.  In  front  of  3,  part 
of  scaphoid ;  in  front  of  it  one,  and  part 
of  another  cuneiform.  The  metatarsus 
is  seen  extending  from  the  cuboid  and 
cuneiform ;  6,  7,  8,  9,  ligaments. 


380.  THE  TAESAL  BOXES  are  half  the  length  of  the 
foot,  and,  near  their  middle,  jointed  with  the  leg.    They 
are  mostly  composed  of  spongiform  bone,  with  a  thin, 
dense  layer,  having  many  perforations  for  vessels.     (See 
Figs.  1,  2,  3,  PL  15.) 

381.  THE  TAESAL  BOXES  ARE  IXTERLOCKED  with  the 
five  bones  (metatarsal)  forming  the  frame  of  the  foot, 
the  front  ends  of  which  descend  to  the  ground,  and  join 


Describe  Fig.  170,    879.  How  — ?    Describe  Fig.  17L    380,  What  aaid  of  — ? 
KL  How—  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS,    227 

with  the  bones  (phalanges)  of  the  toe,  three  in  number, 
except  in  the  great  toe,  which  has  but  two,  and  some- 
times two  in  the  little  toe,  on  account  of  two  being  os- 
sified together. 

382.  THE  TARSUS  AND  METATARSUS  FORM  several 
arches,  all  of  which  are  elastic  on  account  of  the  carti- 
lages with  which  the  numerous  joints  are  furnished. 

383.  Thus,  THE  WEIGHT  OF  THE    BODY  IS  SUSTAINED 

in  the  most  perfect  manner,  if  only  the  perfections  of  the 
foot  are  developed  and  allowed  to  exhibit  themselves. 

384.  THE  PREVAILING  IGNORANCE  OF  THE  HUMAX 
FRAME  CAUSES  the  sad  blunder  to  be  often  committed, 
of  cramping  the  foot  in  tight  coverings,  and  upon  high 
heels,  which  can  never  improve  personal  appearance,  but 
must  detract  from  it. 

Remark. — The  young  lady  or  gentleman  of  low  stature,  who  thinks 
to  appear  taller  by  wearing  high  heels,  should  also  remember  that  they 
will  thus  appear  more  awkwardly,  which  will  detract  from,  more  than 
increased  height  will  add  to,  their  personal  advantages. 

Upper  Extremities. 

385.  THE  UPPER  EXTREMITIES  ARE  CONNECTED  to 
the  trunk  by  means  of  the  collar-bones  (clavicles). 

386.  THE  CLAVICLES  ARE  short  bones,  one  extremity 
of  which  is  movably  jointed  and  bound  to  the  upper  end 
of  the  sternum  (see  Fig.  2,  PL  18),  and  the  outer  end  of 
which  is  connected  with  the  shoulder-blades  (scapulce), 
just  above  the  shoulder-joint. 

387.  THE  SCAPULA  is  a  very  thin  bone,  often  very 
delicately  constructed,  having  a  ridge  rising  from  its 
back  part  and  extending  across  it,  and  rising  over  the 
joint  to  meet  the  clavicle,  thus  forming  the  tip  of  the 
shoulder  (acromion  process). 

388.  THE  FORM   OF    THE    SCAPULA    is    triangular, 
slightly  convex  on  its  outer  surface  and  slightly  concave 


882.  What  do—?  3S3.  How -?  3S4.  What  does  —  ?  Effect  of  heels  ?  3S5.How 
—  ?    386.  What  — ?    387.  What  — ?    885.  What  — ? 


228  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

on  its  under  surface,  to  adapt  it  to  the  form  of  the  ribs 
in  its  natural  position. 

389.  THE  SCAPULA  is  JOINTED  to  the  chest  only  as 
described,  and  merely  rests  on  the  back  of  its  frame, 
some  muscles  intervening  and  being  attached  to  it. 

390.  THE    INTENT    OF    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE 

SCAPULA  was,  to  provide  a  sufficient  surface  for  the  at- 
tachment of  muscles  adapted  to  move  the  shoulder, 
which  is,  so  to  speak,  pivoted  on  the  clavicle,  and  can 
be  moved  in  a  limited  portion  of  the  circumference  of 
the  sphere  of  which  the  clavicle  is  the  radius. 

391.  THE   MOVEMENT    OB    THE    POSITION   OF  THE 
SHOULDER-BLADE  does  not  affect  the  size  or  form  of  the 
chest. 

392.  Remark. — When  the  shoulders  are  drawn  back,  more  of  the 
chest  is  observed  in  front  of  the  arms  than  when  the  shoulders  are  for- 
ward, hence  drawing  them  back  has  been  thought  to  enlarge  the  chest ; 
but  in  fact  the  chest  was  so  much  the  smaller  behind  the  arms. 

393.  CONSTRICTING  THE  SHOULDERS  in  any  position 
will  only  interfere  with  free  movement  of  the  chest, 
and  instead  of  enlarging  it  will  only  diminish  the  ca- 
pacity of  that  part  of  the  body. 

394.  THE  SCAPULA  is  JOINTED  to  the  upper  arm-bone 
(Humerus)  by  a  very  shallow  socket,  to  which  the  hemi- 
spherical head  of  the  humerus  is  adapted,  so  that  the 
arm  can  have  a  very  extended  motion ;  and  when  this  is 
combined  with  the  movements  of  the  Scapula,  and  these 
multiplied  by  the  motions  of  the  chest  and  spinal  column, 
the  hand  has  an  extent  of  motion  adapted  to  any  neces- 
sary purpose. 

395.  THE  HUMERUS  is  WROUGHT  at  its  lower  extremi- 
ty into  two  condyles,  the  internal  and  external,  by  which 
it  is  beautifully  jointed  to  one  of  the  bones  (Ulna)  of  the 
lower  arm. 

396.  THE  ULNA  is  the  name  of  the  internal  bone  of 


389.  How  -?    890.  What  —  ?    391.  What  said  of  -?    89&  What  said  of  -? 
394.  How  —  ?    395.  How  —  ?    396.  What  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OP  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    229 

the  lower  arm ;  it  is  furnished  with  a  hook-like  process 
that  fits  around  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus,  and,  when 
the  bone  is  straightened,  matches  into  an  excavation  in 
the  back  part  of  the  humerus.  It  is  also  furnished  with 
a  process  on  the  lower  side  of  the  joint  that  matches  an 
excavation  on  the  front  of  the  humerus ;  thus,  the  mo- 
tions of  the  ulna  can  be  backward  and  downward  nearly, 
but  not  quite,  to  a  straight  line  with  the  humerus,  and 
forward  and  upward  nearly  parallel  to,  but  always  at  an 
angle  with,  it. 

397.  THE  RADIUS  is  THE  NAME  of  another  bone  in 
the  lower  arm,  situated  by  the  side  of  the  Ulna,  and  just 
resting  against  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus,  but  form- 
ing no  part  of  the  elbow-joint;  a  ligament  confines  it  to 
its  place,  but  allows  it  to  revolve  partly. 

FIG.  173. 


FIG.  172. 

Fig.  172,  ulna  and  radius :  4,  point  of  elbow  (olecra- 
non);  5,  process  in  front  of  joint  (coronoid);  2,  cavity 
fitting  around  lower  end  of  humerus ;  3,  joint  of  11  with 
ulna ;  15,  surface  of  E  that  turns  over  on  to  8  of  the  U\ 
13,  attachment  of  biceps. 

Fig.  173,  upper  end  of  ulna :  1,  olecranon ;  2,  cavity ; 
3,  coronoid ;  4,  ligament  binding  radius  in  5,  the  cavity  in  which  11  of  172 
turns.  • 

398.  THE  ULNA  AND  RADIUS  are  connected  through- 
out their  length  by  a  ligament,  the  surfaces  of  which  af- 
ford much  space  for  tfte  attachment  of  muscles. 

399.  At  their  lower  extremities  THE  RADIUS  is  AT- 
TACHED TO  THE  ULNA  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  turn 
over  on  to  it,  much  as  the  lid  of  a  book  turns  over. 

400.  This   ROTARY   JOINT    OF  THE  LOWER  ARM   is   the 

most  ingenious  one  in  the  Body,  and  the  most  useful  at 


897.   Of  what  —  ?     Describe  Fig.  172.     Fig.   173.      398.  What  said  of  —  ? 
9.  How  —  ?    400.  What  is  —  ? 


230  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

the  same  time ;  it  is  the  simplest  arrangement  imagina- 
ble, yet  how  complete ! 

401.  THE  RADIUS  is  JOINTED  to  the  wrist  (carpus), 
'that  does  not  touch  the  ulna,  so  that  when  the  radius 
turns,  the  hand  is  carried  with  it.    Thus  is  obtained  an  ex- 
ceedingly useful  motion,  as  in  turning  a  key,  gimlet,  etc. 

402.  THE  HAND  is  JOINTED  to  the  radius  by  a  partial 
ball  and  socket-joint,  or  compound  hinge-joint,  and  thus 
can  be  bent  up  and  down  and  from  side  to  side. 

403.  THE  CARPUS  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  eight  bones,  in 
two  rows  of  four  each.     (See  the  appropriate  Figs,  and 
descriptions.) 

404.  THE  CARPAL  BONES  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  spongi- 
fonn  within  and  a  thin  dense  layer  at  their  surface.   Their 
joints  are  supplied  with  cartilages,  and  they  are  bound 
strongly  together  by  ligaments. 

405.  From  the  carpal  the  METACARPAL  BONES  ex- 
tend to  the  bones  (phalanges)  of  the  fingers,  of  Avhich 
there  are  two  in  the  thumb  and  three  in  each  of  the  fin- 
gers, jointed  by  ball  and  socket  and  hinge  joints,  fur- 
nished with  cartilages,  synovial  membranes,  and  bound 
together  with  ligaments,  limiting  the  bones  to  their  ap- 
propriate motions. 

406.  THE  ENTIRE  SKELETON,  with  the  exception  of 
the  U-shaped  bone  (hyoid),  has  been  passed  under  no- 
tice ;  that  bone  can  be  better  described  in  connection 
with  the  organs  of  voice  and  the  framework  of  the  lar- 
ynx, which  will  best  follow  the  organs  of  respiration. 

407.  THE  FRAMEWORK  OF  SOME  PARTS,  the  ear,  tip 
of  the  nose,  the  larynx  and  trachea,  are  wholly  composed 
of  cartilage  that  never  becomes  ossified. 

Remark. — This  seems  to  be  remarkably  fortunate,  for  men  never  live 
to  be  so  old  as  not  to  be  fond  of  thrusting  their  noses  into  other  people's 
affairs,  and  these  organs  would  be  very  often  fractured  if  they  ever  lost 
their  elasticity. 


401.  How  _?    402.  How  -?    408.  How  — ?    404.  How  —  ?    405.  What  said 
of  -  ?    406.  What  said  —  ?    40T.  What  said  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    231 

*  \ 

General   View  of  the  Skeleton. 

408.  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  SKELETON  are  connected 
with  the  commercial  capital  by  the  Blood-tubes,  and 
with  the  political  capital  by  the  nerves. 

409.  ARTERIES  AND  VEINS  extend  into  and  out  of  all 
the  bones  by  means  of  the  numerous  nutritious  holes  or 
foramina,  that  will  be  found  in  the  surface  of  any  bone, 
communicating  with  canals  leading  to  capillaries  in  every 
part  of  it;  they  have  the  largest  meshes  of  any  in  the  body. 

410.  BY  MEANS  OF  THE  BLOOD-TUBES  nutritious  sub- 
stances  are  poured  through  every  part  of  the  bones,  and 
all  substances  that  have  become  useless  are  by  the  same 
means  brought  away. 

411.  From  infancy  to  maturity  THE  SKELETON  EN- 
LARGES by  the  gradual  removal  of  all  parts,  particle  by 
particle,  and  the  replacing  of  these  on  an  increased  scale 
over  and  over  again.    It  is  impossible  to  conjecture  how 
many  different  skeletons  a  person  has  between  birth  and 
maturity.     The  teeth  are  changed  but  once. 

412.  DIFFERENT  PARTS  CHANGE  OR  ENLARGE  with 
varying  degrees  of  rapidity  at  different  periods  of  growth, 
the  appropriate  proportions  being  most  wonderfully  pre- 
served, yet  differing  at  different  periods. 

413.  CHANGES  TAKE  PLACE  IN  THE  BONES  AFTER  MA- 
TURITY.    They  become  more  brittle  from  the  predomi- 
nance of  earthy  matter,  and  more  spongiform  or  cancel- 
lated, the  spaces  being  filled  with  marrow. 

414.  IT   IS  NECESSARY  TO  HAVE  THE  EARTHY  MATTER 

INCREASED  to  give  the  necessary  resistance  when  the  ex- 
cavations are  made,  which  are  needed  to  contain  marrow, 
useful  in  preventing  jars  from  reaching  the  Brain,  and 
especially  in  supplying  a  store  of  heat-producing  mate- 
rial, when  in  age  the  organs  cannot  at  times  prepare  it 
from  the  food  directly. 


408.  What  said  —  ?    409.  What  said  —  ?    410.  What  effected  —  ?    411.  How  does 
-  ?    412.  How  do  —  ?    413.  What  —  ?    414.  Why  —  ? 


232  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

415.  WHEN  THE  BRAIN  DIMINISHES  IN  ADVANCED 
YEARS,  the  size  of  the  entire  skull  correspondingly  dimin- 
ishes. 

416.  WHEN  THE  BONES  ARE  BROKEN,  gristly  tissue 
is  laid  down  in  the  form  of  a  plug  within  the  fractured 
bone,  and  in  the  form  of  a  ferule  or  ring  (callous)  on 
the  outside  of  it,  holding  the  broken  ends  in  place,  after 
which  bony  tissue  is  deposited  between  the  broken  ends 
and  united  with  them.     When  this  process  is  complete 
the  cartilaginous  plug  and  callous  are  removed  so  com- 
pletely that  at  times  no  trace  of  the  fracture  is  left. 

417.  THE  REPAIRING  OP  BONE  is  a  long  process,  re- 
quiring several  changes  in  the  repaired  parts,  and  quite 
an  amount  of  nutritious  material  of  the  ossific  sort.     It 
should  be  attended  by  a  hearty  appetite.     Fortunately, 
at  such  times,  other  parts  may  be  at  rest  without  injury 
to  themselves  or  causing  irregularity  in  the  bowels,  kid- 
neys, or  other  organs ;  which  is  a  wonderful  provision, 
as  if  it  was  anticipated  that  accidents  must  happen. 

418.  THE  FACTS  MENTIONED  IN  REGARD  TO  CHANGES 
IN  THE  BONES  SHOW  that  there  is  a  unitary  power  su- 
perintending the  action  that  takes  place  in  them,  increas- 
ing  action   and   diminishing   it  in   the   various    parts, 
according  to  the  necessities  of  the  part  and  the  welfare 
of  other  parts. 

419.  THE     NECESSITY    FOR    A    UNITARY    SUPERIN- 
TENDING POWER  is  SUPPLIED   by  means   of  the  nerves 
that  extend  from  every  part  of  the  bones  to  the  nerv- 
ous centres. 

420.  THE  OSSEOUS  NERVES  ARE  DOUBTLESS  of  two 
kinds,  Sympathetic  and  Sensatory,  though  only  the  lat- 
ter can  be  demonstrated. 

421.  THE  NERVES  EXTENDING  FROM  THE  BONES  PRO- 
DUCE sensation  only  when  the  bones  are  diseased,  or 
after  they  have  been  broken  a  little  while. 


415.  What  effect  — ?    416.  What  occurs  —  ?    417.  What  said  of  —  ?    418.  What 
do  — ?    419.  How  is  — ?    420.  What  —  ?    421.  What  do  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    233 

422.  Illus. — If  a  bone  is  cut  across  when  sound,  its  nerves  will 
not  cause  pain.    Indeed,  two  persons  stated  to  the  author  that  a  slightly 
pleasant  tickling  sensation  was  caused  by  the  saw  passing  through  the 
bone. 

423.  Remark. — A  twinge  of  excruciating  pain  will  be  caused  by 
cutting  across  a  nerve  of  touch,  if  one  happens,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case,  to  extend  through  the  bone  hi  the  path  of  a  section. 

424.  Inf. — The  sooner  a  bone  is  set  after  it  is  broken,  the  less  pain- 
ful the  operation. 

425.  THE  VERY  SENSITIVE  CONDITION  OF  THE  NERVES 
after  a  fracture  is  a  wise  means  of  compelling  a  perfect 
quiet  of  the  parts,  such  as  no  splint  can  produce ;  for 
when,  as  sometimes  happens,  the  nerves  do  not  become 
painful,  the  parts  are  not  kept  sufficiently  quiet  to  have 
them  unite,  and  it  is  necessary  to  excite  pain  in  the 
nerves. 

426.  BLOOD-TUBES  DO  NOT  EXIST  IN  THE  CARTILAGES 
OR  LIGAMENTS  of  the  skeleton,  for  it  would  not  comport 
with  the  offices  of  those  parts  to   have   compressible 
Blood-tubes  in  them;  but  they  exist  all  around  those 
parts,  which  are  slowly  nourished  from  them,  and  tedi- 
ously recover  from  injuries. 

427.  THE   NERVES   OF  THE  CARTILAGES  AND  LIGA- 
MENTS, like  those  in  tendons,  are  not  sensitive  while  un- 
injured, nor  if  pricked,  cut,  or  even  burned,  but  if  twisted 
ever  so  little  are  very  painful. 

428.  Illus. — IP  A  TENDON  ON  THE  BACK  OF  THE  HAND,  Sometimes  6X- 

posed  by  a  cut,  is  touched  with  a  red-hot  wire,  pain  will  not  be  felt,  nor 
if  it  is  pinched  •  but  if  the  tendon  is  twisted  in  the  slightest  degree, 
pain  is  instantly  felt. 

429.  Illus. — IP  A  PIN  IS  THRUST  THROUGH  THE  SKIN  JUST  ABOVE  THE 

KNEE,  and  turned  downward,  it  may  be  buried  in  the  tendon  without 
causing  pain.  Boys  often  try  this. 

430.  Remark. — There  is  A  CURIOUS  FACT  about  the  nerves  of  the 
hip-joint.     When  it  is  diseased,  the  pain  caused  throughout  its  nerves 
seems  to  be  in  the  knee,  and  of  that  part  the  affected  child  will  com- 
plain.    This  disease  is  very  insidious  and  serious,  but  if  taken  in  season 


422.  Is  bone  painful?  424.  Inf.  425.  What  said  of  —  ?  426.  Why  —  ?    427- 
said  of  —  ?    428.  What  said  of  —  ?    429.  What  —  ?    430.  What  —  ? 


234  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

may  usually  be  checked.  If  therefore  a  child  complains  of  pain  about 
the  knee,  and  neither  swelling  nor  soreness  is  manifested  there  upon  ex- 
amination, disease  of  the  hip  may  be  suspected,  and  skillful  advice  taken. 
A  long  period  of  repose  must  be  allowed  to  the  part,  and  particular  at- 
tention paid  to  general  health. 

431.  Remark. — FELON  is  a  disease  of  the  membrane  covering  the 
bone,  that  becomes  very  painful  because  its  dense  fibres  compress  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  there  situated.     To  relieve  the  pain  of  felon, 
therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  these  fibres,  which  will  be  accomplished 
naturally  by  ulceration,  but  can  better  be  done  artificially  by  the  sur- 
geon's lancets.     As  soon  as  a  felon  is  recognized,  the  part  should  be  cut 
through  to  the  bone. 

432.  Inf. — IT  WOULD  BE  CORRECTLY  INFERRED  that  proper  exercise 
will  circulate  Blood  through  and  around  the  skeleton,  so  as  to  increase 
its  size  and  strength,  and  promote  its  growth,  while  loo  much  labor  or 
exercise  will  prevent  its  development,  since  the  materials  to  form  it  will 
not  be  furnished,  and  the  power  needed  to  use  them  is  exhausted  by  the 
exercise. 

433.  Inf. — Since  WHEN  THE  BONES  ARE  BROKEN  exercise  cannot  be 
taken,  those  parts  of  the  Body  which  can  be  rubbed  with  propriety 
should  be  thus  treated,  to  assist  in  more  actively  circulating  the  Blood, 
and  producing  a  more  speedy  restoration. 

434.  Inf. — THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  YOUNG  SKELETON  distinctly 
suggest  frequent  changes  of  position ;  children  should  neither  sit,  stand, 
or  lie  too  long  in  one  posture.      The  child  should  not  be  carried  in  one 
position  long  by  the  nurse,  and  should  be  turned  frequently  while  it  is 
sleeping. 

435.  Inf. — A  CHILD  SHOULD  NOT  BE  PLACED  UPON  ITS  FEET  tOO  young 

in  order  to  induce  or  to  teach  it  to  walk,  but  nature  should  be  relied 
upon  to  inspire  the  child  to  walk  as  soon  as  it  is  best. 

436.  Remark. — A  CHILD  CAN  NEVER  BE  TAUGHT  TO  WALK  ;  it  will 
only  walk  when  it  has  the  requisite  strength  and  development ;  setting 
the  child  upon  its  feet,  leading  it,  and  the  use  of  all  such  means,  only 
tends  to  curve  the  limbs  or  trunk.     The  child  that  is  backward  will  walk 
as  soon  as  it  should,  and  the  child  that  is  forward  will  not  be  harmed. 
Of  the  two,  pains  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  child  from  walking. 
Instinct  in  case  of  the  child,  as  in  the  animal,  is  the  only  reliable  guide 
in  respect  to  walking. 

437.     Thus  is  THE  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTED,  a  living 
marvel  of  workmanship,  a  thing  of  beauty  not  of  dread. 


481.  What  is  —  ?    432.  What  —  ?    483.  What  Inf.  —  ?    434.  Wliat  said  of  —  T 
485.  When  —  ?    436.  Why  —  ?    437.  How  —  ?    How  regard  the  skeleton  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   OBGANS.    235 
FIG.  174. 


236  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

The  ghastly  features  it  exhibits  to  timorous  ignorance, 
change  their  aspect  as  the  intelligent  mind  learns  to 
admire  the  superhuman  wisdom  that  organized  and  so 
exquisitely  adapted  it  to  serve  the  wants  of  man. 
Whether  we  regard  the  admirable  properties  of  the 
tissues  of  which  it  is  constituted,  or  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  constructed  and  preserved,  mended  and 
amended,  or  whether  we  regard  the  purposes  to  which 
it  is  devoted,  its  use  as  a  support  to  all  the  organs,  a 
protection  to  many,  or  as  adapted  to  the  production  of 
motion,  from  the  sole  of  the  foot  to  the  crown  of  the 
head,  it  is  equally  replete  with  edifying  truths. 

SECTION  H. 

Muscles :  Contractility. 

438.  THE  EVIDENT  ADAPTATION  OF  THE  SKELETON 
TO  PRODUCE  MOTION  SUGGESTS  the  inquiry,  What  pro- 
duces the  motion  of  its  parts  ? 

439.  It  is  PERTINENT  that  a  description  of  the  mus- 
cles moving  the  skeleton  should  follow  a  description  of 
it,  since  nothing  else  antecedent  is  necessary  to  a  correct 
understanding  of  them;  since  some  of  them  assist  in  the 
action  of  other  organs,  as  the  muscles  of  the  trunk-walls 
in  respiration,  so  that  a  description  of  them  must  precede 
that  of  the  contained  organs ;   and  since  other  muscles 
produce  motion  of  or  in  other  organs,  and  will  be  better 
understood  if  those  of  the  Skeleton  are  first  described. 

440.  MUSCLES  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  of  two  parts,  the 
Sinewy  and  the  Muscular  or  contractile. 

441.  THE  CONTRACTILE  PART  OF  MUSCLES  CONSTITUTES 
what  is  called  the  lean  meat  of  animals  ;  and  though  as 
it  is  usually  cut  it  does  not  seem  to  have  any  regular 
arrangement,  it  is  arranged  in  perfect  order,  as  may  be 
seen  by  observing  PI.  2. 


Subject  of  Section  II.  ?     488.  What  does  -?     489.  What  — ?    440.  How  -? 
441.  What  does— ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    237 

442.  THE  RED  COLOR  of  the  contractile  part  is  owing 
to  the  Blood  that  is  in  it ;  hence  it  has  different  colors  in 
different  animals. 

443.     Illus. — THE  DRUMSTICK  OP  A  FOWL  EXHIBITS  in  an  admirable 
manner  a  bundle  of  muscles,  with  their  fleshy  and  sinewy  parts. 

444.  ANY  PIECE  OF  LEAN  MEAT  CAN  BE  EASILY  DI- 
VIDED in  one  direction  into  stringy  fibres,  which,  by  the 
use  of  appropriate  instruments,  can  be  subdivided  till 
fibrils  are  reached,  not  so  large  as  hairs,  composed  of  an 
exceedingly  delicate  sheath,  like  basement  membrane, 
enclosing  still  more  delicate  fibrillaB  composed  of  cells, 
or  minute  particles  of  a  beaded  form  placed  end  to  end. 

445.  Commencing  with  the  delicate  cellular  fibrillse, 
A  MUSCLE  is  CONSTRUCTED  by  enveloping  a  small  bun- 
dle of  them    in   a   membranous    homogeneous   sheath, 
and  forming  a  fibril.     A  bundle  of  fibrils  placed  side 
by  side,  and  enclosed  in  a  sheath  of  sinewy  membrane, 
forms  a  fasciculus. 

446.  ALL  THE  FIBRILLJB  in  a  fibril  and  all  the  fibrils 
in  a  fasciculus  are  parallel,  but  fasciculi  may  not  be,  in- 
deed seldom  are,  perfectly  so. 

447.  Inf. — FASCICULI  MAY  BE  CONSIDERED  as  the  elements  of  mus- 
cles, and  a  single  one  may  constitute  an  entire  muscle. 

FIG.  175. 


Fig.  175  represents  several  fasciculi 
cut  across,  their  contained  fibrils,  and 
the  containing  sheath,  each  fibril  being 
composed  of  several  fibrillse  too  small  to 
be  represented. 


448.     WHEN  MUSCLES  ABOVE  THE  SMALLEST  SIZE  ARE 
TO  BE  FORMED,  fasciculi  are  gathered  into   larger  or 

442.  What  said  of  —  ?    443.  What  does  —  ?    444.  How  can  —  ?    445.  How  —  ? 
446.  What  said  —  ?    447.  How  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  175.    448.  What  said  -  ? 


238  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

smaller  bundles,  and  are  enclosed  by  a  sinewy  membrane 
somewhat  thicker  than  that  of  the  fasciculus,  and  this 
may  be  a  muscle.  These  bundles  may  be  again  made 
up  and  enclosed  in  a  still  thicker  sinewy  membrane, 
while  several  muscles  themselves  may  also  be  surrounded 
by  an  enclosing  membrane,  called  a  fascia.  Sinewy 
fibres  are  also  woven  among  the  bundles  in  the  form  of 
areolar  texture. 

449.  Illus. — THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  THIGH  are  enclosed  in  a'dbmmon 
external  sheath  or  fascia  beneath  the  skin,  and  bundle  within  bundle  of  the 
constituents  of  the  thigh  can  be  analyzed  till  the  ultimate  cellular  fibrillae, 
composed  of  albuminous  membrane  and  contractile  musculine,  is  reached. 

450.  AROUND  THE  FIBEILL^:,  but  not  entering  them, 
is  woven  a  beautiful  network  of  very  fine  capillaries  that 
communicate  with  arteries  on  one  hand  and  veins  on  the 
other,  so  that  a  plentiful  supply  of  Blood  is  constantly 
poured  around  the  contractile  elements  of  the  muscle. 

451.  UPON    OR    IN    THE    SHEATHS    OF    THE    FIBRILLAE 

nerves  terminate  and  commence,  precisely  how  is  not 
known ;  some  suppose  by  loops  and  others  by  points. 

452.  Through  SOME  OF  THE  NERVES,  CALLED  MOTOR, 
influences  are  brought  to  the  contents  of  the  fibrillar 
sheath  that  causes  them  to  contract,  and  through  OTHER 
NERVES,  CALLED  SENSORY,  influences  are  sent  to  the  ner- 
vous centres,  causing  sensations  and  other  effects. 

453.  THE  SHEATHS  OF  SOME  OF  THE  FASCICULI  extend 
but  a  little  distance  beyond  their  contents  and  produce 
very  short  tendons,  while  in  other  cases  they  extend  and 
are  condensed  in  the  form  of  long  tendons. 

454.  THE  CONTENTS  OF  THE  FASCICULI  are  of  nearly 
equal  lengths  in  some  muscles,  making  their  ends  abrupt, 
while  in  others  the  contents  are  very  unequal  in  length, 
producing  a  tapering  muscle. 

455.  THE  FIBRES  OF  THE  FASCICULAR  SHEATHS  are 
woven  diagonally  to  their  contents,  but  where  they  ex- 


449.  What  said  of  -  ?    450.  What  IB  —  ?    451.  What  is  —  ?    452.  What  said  -  ? 
458.  What  said  —  ?    454.  What  said  of  —  ?    455.  What  said  of  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    239 

tend  they  are  side  by  side,  producing  a  very  compact, 
hard,  strong  cord  or  expanded  membrane,  called,  in  the 
former  case,  tendon,  in  the  latter,  aponeurosis. 

456.  WHEN    THE   MUSCLE   is   TO   ACT  UPON   SOFT 
PARTS,  the  sheaths  of  its  fasciculi  blend  directly  with 
the  part  which  is  to  be  acted  upon,  and  no  tendon  is 
necessary. 

457.  THE  FASCICULI  MAY  ALSO  BECOME  ATTACHED  by 
one  extremity  to  the  enclosing  sheath  of  the  muscle 
they  form. 

458.  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  TENDON  frequently  extend 
into  the  muscle,  making  divisions  of  it,  to  each  side  of 
which  the  fasciculi  can  be  attached. 

459.  THE  TENDONS  ARE  ATTACHED  TO  THE  SKELETON 
by  having  their  fibres  become  continuous  with  those  of 
the  fibrous  or  sinewy  membrane  (periosteum)  covering 
the  bones,  or  with  the  fibres  of  the  ligaments. 

460.  THE    TENDONS    SOMETIMES   EXTEND   along  in 
grooves  in  the  bones,  or  turn  around  ligaments,  or  move 
over  places  where  friction  is  likely  to  occur. 

461.  BURS^E  ARE  small  bags  or  cells  composed  of 
sinewy  membrane,  and  lined  with  serous,  secretory  tissue 
placed  at  different  points,  to  prevent  the  friction  that 
would  otherwise  be  caused  by  tendons.     Their  form  is 
in  accordance  with  the  place  they  are  to  occupy. 

462.  Illus. — Behind  the  third  finger,  at  the  edge  of  the  palm,  (1, 
Fig.  176)  under  the  skin  and  a  ligament,  A  BURSA  OP  AN  HOURGLASS  FORM 
is  LOCATED  ;  by  pressing  on  the  front  part  of  it,  its  contained  fluid  is 
pressed  back,  and  produces  a  little  swelling  easily  noticed  and  felt. 

463.  Remark. — The  bursa,  from  some  cause,  sometimes  becomes 
distended  by  fluid,  feels  very  hard,  and  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  an  en- 
largement of  a  bone.    Weakness  of  the  part  is  the  usual  attendant.     It 
is  called  WEEPING  SINEW,  or  sometimes  a  ganglion.     It  is  easily  cured. 
The  best  thing  to  do  at  first  is  to  bind  something  hard  upon  it  for  seve- 
ral days,  when,  if  it  do  not  disappear,  recourse  should  be  had  to  a  sur- 
geon, who  will,  by  a  slight  operation,  remove  it. 


456.  What  said  — ?  457.  How  — ?  458.  What  said  of— ?  459.  How  — ?  460.  How 
do  —  ?    461.  What  —  ?    462.  Where  —  ?    468.  What  is  —  ? 


240 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 
FIG.  176. 


464.  THE  TENDONS  OF  EITHER  EXTREMITY  OP  A  MUS- 
CLE maybe  attached  to  one  or  to  several  different  points, 
or  to  a  continuous  surface.     In  one  case  they  are  said  to 
have  one  or  several  heads  or  origins,  and  in  the  other 
to  have  one  or  several  insertions.     The  head  is  that  ex- 
tremity that  is  usually  firm,  while  the  insertion  is  the 
point  or  extremity  to  be  moved. 

465.  THE  USE  OF  A  MUSCLE  is,  by  contraction,  to 
produce  motion. 

466.  THE  CONTRACTION  OF  A  MUSCLE  cannot  be  con- 
tinued for  any  considerable  length  of  time ;  it  must  in  a 
short  time  relax,  or  lengthen. 

467.  THE  REASON  WHY  CONTRACTION  CANNOT  CON- 
TINUE is,  that  decomposition  is  going  on  as  long  as  con- 
traction continues,  and  as  it  shuts  out  the  Blood  recom- 
position  cannot  take  place;   relaxation  must  therefore 
occur  in  order  that  the*  Blood  may  have  an  opportunity 
of  pouring  into  the  muscle,  carrying  away  the  used  and 
useless  substance,  and  supplying  new  material. 

468.  Illus. — By  placing  one  hand  on  the  front  part  of  the  upper 
arm,  and  raising  and  lowering  its  fore  arm,  the  action  of  the  muscles 
can  be  appreciated.  When  the  forearm  is  raised  the  muscle  shortens, 


464.  What  said  of  —  ?    465.  What  is  -  ?    466.  What  said  —  ?    467.  What  is  — 
468.  Illustrate  muscular  contraction. 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    241 

becomes  broader  and  harder ;  when  the  fore  arm  is  lowered,  the  muscle 
returns  to  its  former  condition. 

469.  Contraction  of  a  muscle  could  not  be  continued 
as  long  as  it  now  is  IF  THE  ENTIRE  MUSCLE  CONTRACT- 
ED at  once. 

470.  Only  A  PORTION  OF  THE  CONTENTS  OF  A  FIBRIL 
contract  at  a  time,  when  another  portion  takes  it  up, 
then  another,  then  another.     Thus  there  is  a  vibratory 
contraction  of  a  muscle  during  the  time  that  it  appears 
to  contract. 

471.  ANOTHER  PECULIARITY  OF  MUSCLE  is  TO   BE 
NOTICED  :  if  it  is  cut  it  gapes.    The  muscle  must  therefore 
be  constantly  contracted  to  a  degree.     This  is  called  its 
tone  or  its  tonicity,  and  exists  without  reference  to  the  will. 

472.  THE  TONE  OF  THE  MUSCLES  WILL  DIFFER  in 
different  persons,  and  in  the  same  person  at  different 
times.     Whether  it  is  the  same  as  its  contractility,  only 
in  a  lesser  degree,  is  not  known.     It  can  be  suspended 
or  diminished  by  the  action  of  various  medicines,  for 
instance,  those  that  sicken  the  stomach. 

473.  It  is  the  tone  of  the  muscles  that  balances  THE 

ACTION  OF  ONE  MUSCLE  AGAINST  THAT    OF    ANOTHER,  and 

preserves  an  equilibrium  of  the  parts  of  the  Body. 

474.  WHEN  MOTION  is  PRODUCED  BY  THE  CONTRAC- 
TION OF  ONE  OR  MORE  MUSCLES,  the  relaxation  of  one  or 
more  must  take  place  at  the  same  time.     Contraction 
and  relaxation  must  always  be  harmonious. 

475.  A  DOUBLE  INFLUENCE  MUST  ALWAYS  BE  EXERT- 
ED in  producing  motion,  one  controlling  the  action  of 
the  muscle  or  muscles  directly  producing  the  motion, 
and  another  controlling  the  action  of  the  relaxing  or 
opposing  muscles ;  and  the  requirement  for  the  one  is  as 
imperious  and  requires  as  nice  adjustment  as  the  other. 

476.  SOME  MOTIONS  ARE  PRODUCED  by  the  direct 
action  of  fasciculi,  others  by  the  combined  action  of  sev- 

469.  What  —  ?  470.  What  said  of— ?  471.  What  is  —  ?  472.  How  —  ?  473.  What 
said  —  ?    474.  What  said  —  ?    475.  Why  —  ?    476.  How  —  ? 

11 


242 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


FIG.  177. 


eral  fasciculi,  neither  of  which  contracts  in  the  line  of 
motion ;  others  by  the  successive  action  of  fasciculi,  and 
others  again  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  direction  of 
fascicular  action,  produced  by  a  changed  direction  of  the 
tendon.  (See  9,  in  succeeding  figure.) 

Fig.  177  represents  a 
section  of  the  socket  of 
the  eye  and  that  organ 
with  its  muscles  in  situ. 
4,  the  muscle  that  ele- 
vates the  lid,  a  part  of 
which,  with  the  lashes, 
has  been  cut  off  and  left 
with  the  muscle ;  10, 
points  to  the  loop  of  lig- 
ament round  which  11, 
the  tendon  of  the  mus- 
cle, 9,  turns,  a  bursa  be- 
ing interplaced  to  pre- 
vent friction.  A  farther 
description  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  eye  will  be 
given  when  that  organ 
is  described. 

477.  Sometimes  ALL  THE  FASCICULI    OP    SEVERAL 
MUSCLES  will  be  required  to  produce  a  desired  motion, 
and  again  all  those  of  one  and  only  a  few  of  another. 

478.  Thus  by  THE  VARIED  DIRECTION  OF  THE  FASCI- 
CULI, and  by  combining  the  action  of  muscles  or  parts 
of  muscles,  all  kinds  of  desired  motion  can  be  produced. 

479.  THE  EXTENT  OF  MOTION  DEPENDS  UPON  the 
length  of  the  fasciculi,  and  the  strength  of  motion  upon 
the  number  of  them. 

480.  MOST    OF   THE    MUSCLES    ARE    ATTACHED   to  the 

skeleton  so  as  to  produce  rapid  motions  at  the  expendi- 
ture of  strength,  for  they  are  usually  attached  near  the 
joint.  As  a  hand  near  the  hinge  of  a  gate  must  use 
great  exertion  to  swing  it,  so  must  the  muscle  to  move 
the  part  to  which  it  is  attached. 


Describe  Fig.  177.   477.  What  said  of  —  ?    478.  What  said  of — ?    419.  —  what  ? 
480.  How  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.  243 

481.  THE  HAND  THAT  SWINGS  A  GATE  BY  ACTING 
NEAR  THE  HINGE,  moves  but  a  very  short  distance ;  so 
the  muscle  contracts  but  a  little  to  produce  much  motion. 

482.  A  MUSCLE  CAN  CONTRACT  but  a  small  part  of  its 
length  with  profit,  while  the  exertion  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  effect  can  be  made  in  an  instant,  and  much  time 
saved  in  producing  motion. 

483.  Inf. — THE  WHOLE  BODY  is  CONSTRUCTED  with  reference  to  sav- 
ing time  in  doing  that  which  is  merely  mechanical 

484.   IT  ALSO  IMPROVES  PERSONAL  APPEARANCE  to 

have  muscles  in  many  instances  attached  near  the  joint, 
since  thus  a  compact  and  graceful  form  is  exhibited. 

485.  Remark. — We  may  now  hastily  take  a  view  of  the  muscles 
of  the  different  members  of  the  Body,  for  the  purpose  of  noticing  any- 
thing particularly  interesting,  and  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  some 
of  the  facts  already  stated.  But  it  will  not  be  worth  while  to  enter 
into  a  detailed  description  of  all  the  muscles,  as  nearly  all  of  them  are 
illustrated  by  the  plates,  and  the  description  of  them  in  connection  with 
the  plates  is  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

SPECIAL  MUSCLES. 

Muscles  of  the  Head. 

486.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  HEAD  ARE  DIVIDED  into 
those  of  the  Cranium,  Facium,  and  Organs  of  Sense. 

Remark. — Those  that  move  the  head  upon  the  spinal  column  are 
classed  with  those  of  the  neck. 

487.  THE  OCCIPITO  FRONTALIS  is  the  name   of  a 
broad  thin  muscle  that  extends  from  the  back  of  the 
cranium  to  the  front  of  it,  having  two  fleshy  parts,  one 
at  the  back  and  the  other  in  the  forehead,  the  connecting 
part  being  a  broad  aponeurosis,  some  of  the  fibres  of 
which  closely  connect  with  those  of  the  scalp,  on  ac- 
count of  which  this  muscle  can  move  the  scalp.     The 
contraction  of  the  front  part  of  it  wrinkles  the  forehead. 
It  has  a  line  of  tendon  extending  from  front  to  back, 

481.  What  said  of  —  ?  482.  How  —  ?  483.  How  —  ?  484.  What  —  ?  485.  What 
is  the  next  step  ?  486.  How  —  ?  487.  Describe  — .  Is  it  single  or  double? 


244 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


through  its  centre,  dividing  into  right  and  left ;  hence, 
though  named  as  if  single,  it  is  double.  It  assists  in 
giving  expression. 


FIG  178. 


Fig.  178,  side  view  of 
muscles  of  Cranium,  Fa- 
cium,  and  Neck.  1,  ten- 
don ;  2,  front,  5,  back  of 
Occipito  frontalis;  3,  4, 
6,  muscles  of  external  ear. 
Beneath  3,  temporal  faint- 
ly shown ;  7,  Orbicularis ; 
8,  levator ;  9,  compressor ; 
10,  levator;  11,  buccina- 
tor (trumpeter);  12,  Zy- 
gomatic;  18,  ditto  and 
orbicularis ;  16,  masseter ; 
14,  platysma  myoides ; 
17,  Sterno  Mastoid;  20, 
trapezium. 


488.  THE  SUPERCILIARY  are  situated  beneath  the 
eyebrows,  extending  from  the  ridge  above  the  nose  out- 
ward. When  they  contract  they  corrugate,  and  draw 
down  the  skin  covering  them. 

489.  Remark. — The  two  preceding  muscles  are  the  only  ones  of 
the  Cranium,  and  as  they  are  only  useful  in  giving  expression,  they 
might  better  be  associated  with  those  of  the  facium. 

490.  THREE  MUSCLES,  ABOVE,  IN  FRONT,  AND  BACK 
OP  THE  EAR,  extend  from  it  to  the  cranium,  moving  it 
when  contracted. 


Describe  Fig.  173.    Which  muscles  belone  to  cranium  ?  face  ?  neck  ?    483.  De- 
ecribe  — .    469.  What  said  in  Remark  ?    490.  What  said  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.      245 

491.  Remark, — PERSONS  USUALLY  CANNOT  CONTRACT  THESK  MUSCLES, 
not  because  they  are  wanting  in  any  case,  but  from  not  being  used,  as 
any  one  can  prove  by  frequently  making  an  effort  to  contract  them  with 
a  determination,  and  giving  the  mind  direction  toward  them.  Not  a  few 
other  muscles  through  disease  become  equally  indolent  and  deaf  to  the 
calls  of  the  mind.  Thus  by  tight  dressing  and  supports  the  muscles 
of  the  chest  not  only  become  infirm,  but  absolute  nullities. 

492.  THE  TEMPORAL  can  readily  be  felt  while  chew- 
ing, by  putting  the  fingers  on  the  temple  (so  called  from 
tempus,  time,  because  first  showing  gray  hairs),  to  the 
bone  of  which,  and  a  fascia  stretching  from  its  ridge  to 
the  zygoma,  muscular  fasciculi  are  attached,  and  from 
which  converging,  their  lower  extremities  terminate  in  a 
tendon  that  passes  under  the  yoke  or  zygoma  (an  arm  or 
process  of  bone  extending  in  the  line  between  the  ear 
and  eye),  and  seizes  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  lower 
jaw,  just  in  front  of  the  joint,  and  assists  in  drawing  it 
up  when  chewing ;  hence  the  perceptible  action  of  the 
muscle  at  such  a  time. 

493.  THE  MASSETER  can  be  felt  working  at  the  same 
time  on  the  side  of  the  face ;  it  extends  from  the  yoke  and 
the  cheek  (malar)  bone  down  to  the  lower  jaw. 

494.  THE  PTERYGOID,  internal  and  external,  are  two 
muscles  upon  each  side,  within  the  jaw,  against  the  mas- 
seter,  that  assist  in  raising  the  jaw,  drawing  it  forward 
and  from  side  to  side,  as  in  grinding. 

FIG.  179. 


Fig.  179  represents  a  portion  of  the  lower  jaw  re- 
moved to  expose  1,  the  internal  pterygoid.  A  por- 
tion of  the  zygoma  and  the  temporal  bone  in  front  of 
2  is  removed  to  expose  2,  3,  the  external  pterygoid. 


491.  Why  —  ?    492.  What  said  of  —  ?    493.  What  said  of  —  ?    494.  What  said 
of-?    Describe  Fig.  1T9. 


246  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

495.    Inf. — Four  strong  muscles  upon  each  side  assist  in  mastica- 
tion, several  of  minor  importance  assisting  in  drawing  the  jaw  downward. 

496.  THE  OBBICULABIS  PALPEBBAEUM  is  composed 
of  fasciculi,  that  extend  from  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye, 
sweeping  round  the  lids  of  that  organ  and  by  contrac- 
tion closing  it,  most  of  the  contraction  taking  effect  upon 
the  upper  lid,  which  is  raised  by  a  special  muscle  extend- 
ing from  the  bottom  of  the  socket. 

497.  THE  OTHER  MUSCLES  OF  THE  FACIUM,  as  their 
illustrations  show,  extend  from  various  points  to  the 
nose  or  to  the  mouth,  producing  motion  of  those  parts. 

498.  THE  OBBICULABIS  OEIS  (circular  of  the  mouth) 
is  usually  described  as  if  its  fasciculi  entirely  surrounded 
the  mouth.     It  would  be  better  if  it  were  described  as 
extending  from  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  where  it  is 
blended  with  the  fibres  of  other  muscles,  to  the  central 
line  of  the  lips,  where  there  is  always  a  thin  partition 
tendon  dividing  the  muscle  distinctly  into  right  and  left. 

499.    Remark. — THERE  ARE  OTHER  MUSCLES  within  the  mouth,  eye- 
socket,  and  ear,  to  be  described  in  connection  with  those  organs. 


Muscles  of  the  Neck. 

500.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  NECK  MAY  BE  CLASSED  as 
adapted  to  move  the  head  and  neck  on  the  spinal  col- 
umn, to  raise  the  shoulders,  to  control  the  action  of  the 
mouth  and  throat,  and  to  act  upon  the  larynx. 

501.  THE  STEBNO-MASTOID  (neck-cord)  is  the  most 
conspicuous  muscle  of  the  neck,  extending  from  the  ster- 
num to  the  mastoid  process  just  back  of  the  ear.     Its 
contraction  draws  the  ear  toward  the  sternum  and  moves 
the  head  accordingly.     Both  muscles,  acting  at  the  same 
time,  draw  the  head  directly  forward.     (See  Fig.  178.) 

602.    Remark. — The  other  muscles  bending  the  head  are  small,  and, 
for  the  most  part,  lie  close  to  the  column,  as  shown  by  the  illustrations. 

495.  How  many  muscles  raise  jaw  ?    496.  Describe  — .    497.  What  said  of  —  ? 
498.  Describe  -.    499.  Whore  -?    500.  How  —  ?    501.  Describe  -. 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    247 

503.  THE  TBAPEZIUS  (or  monk's  cowl)  hangs  down 
from  the  back  of  the  head,  a  thin  muscle,  the  fasciculi 
of  which  reach  out  and  take  hold  of  the  shoulder-blade 
(Scapula),  which  is  raised  toward  the  head  by  the  upper 
part,  drawn  back  by  the  middle  part,  and  downward  by 
the  lower  part,  and  moved  in  a  rotary  manner  by  the 
successive  contraction  of  the  fasciculi.  (1,  Fig.  1,  PL  22.) 

'504.  THE  TKAPEZIUS  WILL  ILLUSTRATE  the  effects  of 
culture  in  producing  graceful  motions ;  for  if  its  fasciculi 
are  called  into  action  successively,  a  curvilinear  motion 
will  be  exhibited,  while  if  whole  clusters  of  them  act  at 
once,  angular  and  abrupt  motions  must  be  the  conse- 
quence. The  successive  action  of  parts  of  a  muscle,  and 
of  several  muscles,  can  only  be  obtained  by  much  cul- 
ture, and  is  one  of  the  greatest  accomplishments. 

605.  Illus. — THE  OCCUPATION  OF  ALMOST  EVERT  MECHANIC  CAN  BE 
RECOGNIZED  in  his  every-day  life  when  away  from  his  shop,  the  muscles 
being  so  apt  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  habit  of  exercising  them. 

506.  THE  LEVATOR  ANGULI  SCAPULA,  (5,  Fig.  1,  PL 
21,)  is  used  to  shrug  the  shoulder,  and  hence  sometimes 
called  the  Frenchman's  muscle. 

507.  Remark. — WHEN  THE  SHOULDERS  ARE  MADE  FIRM,  the  prece- 
ding muscles  will  move  the  head  and  neck,  as  will  some  of  those  adapt- 
ed to  move  the  head  assist  in  raising  the  ribs  if  the  head  is  held  firm ; 
observe  that  action  of  the  neck-cord. 

508.  THE  SUBCUTANEOUS  CERVICAL  is  a  broad  thin 
lamina  that  originates  in  the  tissue  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  chest,  and  extends  up  just  beneath  the  skin,  to  which 
some  of  its  fibres  are  attached,  to  the  lower  jaw,  melting 
into  the  parts  covering  it.     Its  contractions  assist  in  giv- 
ing expression  (also  called  Platysma  Myoides,  Fig.  178.) 

509.  THE  DIGASTRIC  MUSCLE,  as  its  name  signifies, 
has  two  fleshy  parts,  with  an  intervening  tendon  that 
slips  through  a  loop  on  the  side  of  the  hyoid  bone,  from 
which  the  front  part  of  the  muscle  extends  up  to  the 


503.   Describe—.      504.  What  will  —  ?      505.   How—?     506.   Describe 
SOT.  What  effect  —  ?    508.  Describe  — .    509.  Describe  — . 


248  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

9entre  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the 
back  part  extends  up  to  the  temporal  bone.  This  mus- 
cle can  therefore  draw  down  the  jaw  if  the  hyoid  bone 
is  firmly  held,  or  if  the  jaw  is  firmly  held  the  hyoid  will 
be  raised.  It  is  a  curious  muscle  on  account  of  its  cen- 
tral tendon  and  its  arrangement. 

510.     Remark. — Other  neck-muscles  may  best  be  described,  so  far 
as  they  need  to  be  mentioned,  in  connection  with  the  throat  and  larynx. 

Muscles  of  the  Trunk-walls. 

511.  THE  MUSCLES  OP  THE  TRUNK-WALLS  MAYBE 
CLASSED  as  those  adapted  to  act  on  the  upper  extremities, 
to  elevate  the  ribs,  to  depress  them,  to  compress  the  or- 
gans of  the  abdomen,  and  to  bend  or  sustain  the  spinal 
column. 

512.  THE  MUSCLES  ADAPTED  TO  ACT  ON  THE  UPPER 
EXTREMITIES  MAY  BE  CLASSED  as   those  acting   on  the 
blades  and  on  the  arms,  and  both  may  be  classed  as 
front  and  back,  or  anterior  and  posterior. 

513.  THE  PECTORALIS  MAJOR,  as  its  name  signifies, 
is  the  largest  of  the  breast,  and  is  worthy  of  notice  from 
the  curious  arrangement  of  its  fasciculi,  where  they  are 
attached  to  the  arm  (14,  PI.  20,  Fig.  1).     The  lower  ones 
extend  up  under  the  upper  ones,  to  be  attached  as  near 
the  joint  as  possible,  since  their  use  is  to  draw  the  arm 
downward,  while  the  upper  fasciculi  extend  over  the 
upper  ones  and  are  attached  as  far  as  possible  down 
from  the  joint,  a  very  extraordinary  and  ingenious  ar- 
rangement for  gaining  important  results  by  simple  means. 
This  muscle  forms  the  inside  of  the  armpit. 

514.  THE   SERRATUS  MAGNUS  (Fig.  1,  PI.  21)  is  a 
broad,  not  very  thick  muscle,  that  extends  from  several 
of  the  ribs  under  the  shoulder-blade,  to  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  back  edge  or  base  of  which  it  is  attached ; 


510.  What  said  of  other  neck-muscles?    511.  How— ?    512.  How  — ?    518.  De- 
scribe — .  Why  is  this  muscle  curious  and  interesting?    514.  Describe  — . 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO    ORGANS.    249 

by  its  contractions  it  draws  the  blade  downward  and 
forward. 

515.  THE  LATISSIMUS  DORSI  (broadest  of  the  back) 
extends  from  the  back  of  the  hips  and  the  region  of  the 
loins  upward  and  outward  to  be  attached  to  the  arm, 
and  by  contraction  draws  it  down  and  backward.     Its 
tendon  forms  the  back  side  of  the  armpit.     (2,  Fig.  1, 
PL  22.) 

516.  THE  RHOMBOID  has  the  shape  its  name  signi- 
fies, and  extends  from  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn down  and  out  to  the  back  edge  or  base  of  the  blade, 
which  it  raises  up  and  draws  back. 

517.  It  therefore  appears  that  THE  SHOULDER-BLADE 
is  imbedded  in  muscles,  by  which  it  is  suspended  in  its 
place  and  moved  in  every  direction,  the  use  of  it  being 
to  furnish  surface  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  to  act 
through  it  upon  the  shoulder  and  arm ;  for  the  shoulder- 
blade  is  never  to  be  moved  except  to  move  the  shoulder- 
joint  and  extend  the  use  of  the  arm.     The  blade  lies 
upon  the  chest,  its  position  and  projection  being  deter- 
mined by  the  chest,  but  not  affecting  its  form  or  size. 

518.  Remark. — MOST  OF  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  UPPER  PART  OF  THE 
TRUNK-WALLS  AND  OF  THE  NECK  may  assist  in  raising  the  ribs,  as  may  be 
noticed  by  drawing  a  deep  breath. 

519.  THE  INTERCOSTALS,  internal  and  external,  are 
two  layers  of  fasciculi  extending  obliquely  between  the 
ribs.     By  their  oblique  direction  they  are  longer  than  if 
direct,  and  if  they  contract  one  third  their  length,  will 
almost  or  quite  bring  the  ribs  together,  while  a  contrac- 
tion of  one  third  their  length,  if  direct,  would  only  move 
the  ribs  to  an  equal  extent.     (20,  21,  Fig.  1,  PI.  21.) 

520.  AGAIN,  IT  is  FOUND,  WONDERFUL  TO  TELL,  that 
from  their  arrangement  one  set  of  these  fasciculi  raise 
the  ribs  and  the  other  depresses  them,  and  neither  can  do 
the  work  of  the  other. 


515.  Describe  — .    516.  Describe  — .    517.  What  said  of  —  ?    Which  effects  the 
other,  the  blade  or  chest  ?  518.  What  said  of  —  ?  519.  Describe  —  ?    520.  What  —  ? 

11*. 


250  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

FlG.  180. 


Fig.  180,  a  plan  of  ribs, 
to  show  direction  of  inter- 
costals  and  how  they  cross. 


521.  THE  RECTUS  ABDOMINALIS  (straight  of  the  ab- 
domen) extends  from  the  front  lower  part  of  the  chest 
down  in  front  of  the  abdomen  to  the  pelvis.     It  is  divid- 
ed by  tendons  into  the  upper,  middle,  and  lower  parts ; 
for  if  the  fleshy  part  had  been  continuous,  its  contrac- 
tions would  have  produced  inconvenience  on  account  of 
the  prominence  its  central  part  would  have  exhibited. 
(26,  Fig.  1,  PI.  20.) 

522.  THE  USE  or  THE  RECTUS  is  to  depress  the 
chest,  and  when  moderately  distended  it  can  act  with 
greatest  advantage;   hence,  a  person  can  speak  or  use 
the  expiratory  organs  with  greatest  ease  after  eating  a 
reasonable  quantity  of  food,  if  not  to  soon. 

523.  THE  SIDES  OF  THE  ABDOMEN  ARE  WALLED  by 
three  layers  of  Muscles,  the  external  and  internal  oblique, 
and  the  transverse.     They  are  fleshy  on  the  sides,  and 
form  a  dense  sinewy  aponeurosis  over  the  centre  of  the 
abdomen.     The  rectus  passes  down  through  this  about 
two  thirds  its  length,  and  then  passing  between  the  fibres 
of  the  transverse,  extends  behind  them  and  those  of  the 
oblique  to  the  pelvis.     (15,  Fig.  2,  PL  21.) 

524.  THE  USE  OF  THE  THREE  LAYERS  is  to  draw 
down  the  ribs  and  compress  the  organs  of  the  abdomen, 
and  thus  doubly  assist  in  expelling  the  air  in  common 
with  the  rectus. 

525.  THE  LUMBAR  QUADRATUS  is  a  stout  muscle  that 
extends  from  the  upper  edge  or  crest  of  the  hip  to  the 
lowest  rib,  and  assists  in  depressing  the  chest.   (Fig.  181.) 


Describe  Fig.  180.     521.  Describe  — .     622.  What  is  -?     528.  How  are  -? 
624.  What  Is  —  ?    525.  Describe  — . 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    251 


626.  Remark. — MOST  OP  THE  MUSCLES  ACTING  ON  THE  CHEST,  shoul- 
ders, neck,  and  head,  can  assist  in  bending  or  sustaining  the  spinal  col- 
umn. The  muscles  of  the  front  walls  of  the  abdomen,  especially  the 
rectus,  are  used  to  bend  the  spinal  column  forward. 

527.  NUMEROUS  SMALL,  LONG,  DELICATE,  BEAUTIFUL 
MUSCLES  ARE  PACKED  in  the  hollows  upon  each  side  of 
the  spinous  processes,  and  assist  in  bending  the  spinal 
column  from  side  to  side,  raising  it  up  and  sustaining  it. 

[(See  Figs.  3,  4,  PI.  21.) 

528.  TWO  MUSCLES  WORTHY  OF   NOTICE   ARE   FOUND 

within  the  abdomen :  the  Illiac  is  attached  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  upper  part  of  the  hip-bone ;  the  Psoas 
arises  from  the  bodies  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  and  their 
substances,  and  extends  down  to  unite  its  tendons  with 
that  of  the  former  muscle,  when  they  both  extend  out 


FIG.  181. 


Fig.  181.  1,  lower 
sternum ;  2,  costal  car- 
tilages; 3,  lumbar  col- 
umn covered  with  liga- 
ment ;  4,  crest  of  hip ; 
5, 6,  7,  under  or  concave 
surface  of  Diaphragm 
(see  Fig.  66) ;  8,  9,  low- 
er back  border  of  D. ; 
10,  11,  central  attach- 
ments called  crus,  curi- 
ously braided  around 
openings,  12,  for  (aorta) 
large  artery;  13,  for 
(Esophagus,  and  14,  for 
large  vein  (vena  cava) ; 
15,  front  part  of  lumbar 
qnadratus;  16,  small, 

17,  large    Psoas;    and 

18,  Illiac  muscle,  with 
lower  part  removed,  as 
is  lower  part  of  4 ;  19, 
20,  part  of  the  transver- 
salis  and  tendon. 


526.  What  said  of—?    527.  How  are  —  ?    528.  Where  are  —  ?    Is  there  any 
other  muscle  extending  from  the  column  to  the  leg-bones  ?    Describe  Fig.  181. 


252  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

upon  the  lower  part  of  the  front  margin  of  the  pelvis, 
and  connect  with  the  upper  part  (lesser  trochanter)  of 
the  thigh-bone  (Femur). 

Remark. — The  Psoas  are  the  only  muscles  that  extend  across  the 
Pelvis.  With  these  exceptions,  the  Pelvis  is  the  origin  of  motions  both 
upward  and  downward.  It  is  the  circle  of  support  of  all  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body  and  the  portion  of  the  body  that  walks  upon  the  parts 
below.  It  is  the  "  dead  point "  in  the  body. 

529.  THE  USE  OF  THE  ILLIAC  AND  PSOAS  MUSCLES 
is  to  bend  the  column  and  trunk  forward  upon  the  thigh- 
bones, or  to  draw  the  leg  up  and  turn  it  slightly.     They 
also  essentially  assist  in  maintaining  the  trunk  erect  on 
the  lower  extremities. 

530.  THE  GLUTEI  ARE  very  large  strong  muscles  on 
the  back  of  the  hip-bones,  inserted  by  their  lower  ten- 
dons in  the  thigh.     They  are  the  chief  means  for  sup- 
porting, in  a  backward  direction,  the  trunk  upon  the 
lower  extremities.     Several  small  muscles  assist  them. 


Muscles  of  the  Lower  Extremities. 

531.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  LOWER  EXTREMITIES 
may  be  classed  as  those  that  move  the  thigh  on  the  hip ; 
the  lower  leg  on  the  thigh ;  the  foot  on  the  leg ;  and  the 
toes  on  the  foot. 

632.  Remark. — THE  MUSCLES  THAT  MOVE  THE  THIGH  UPON  THE  HIP 
are  numerous :  some  already  noticed  are  very  large,  but  most  are  small. 

533.  THE  SARTORIUS  (tailor's)  extends  from  the  up- 
per front  point  of  the  hip  diagonally  down  the  thigh, 
and  is  attached  just  below  the  inside  of  the  knee  to  the 
tibia.     (Fig.  2,  PI.  23.) 

534.  THE  USE  OF  THE  SARTORIUS  is  to  raise  the 
lower  leg  over  the  other,  as  when  a  tailor  sits.     This 
muscle  is  very  interesting  from  being  the  longest  in  the 
Body,  slender,  graceful,  with  parallel  fasciculi,  prominent 


629.  What  is  -?    530.  What  —  ?    581.  How  class  -?    532.  What  said  of  — 
538.  Describe  -.    534.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    253 

near  the  surface,  having  peculiar  uses,  and  particularly 
because  its  inner  edge  at  the  middle  of  the  thigh  is  a 
guide  to  the  position  of  the  great  femoral  artery  that 
lies  between  it  and  the  thigh-bone.  (See  Fig.  182.) 

535.  SOME  MUSCLES  OF  THE  THIGH,  besides  assisting 
in  moving  it,  bend  the  lower  leg  upon  the  thigh  and 
straighten  it,  or  are  flexors  and  extensors  of  the  lower 
leg. 

536.  FOUR  MUSCLES   OF  THE  FRONT  PART  OF  THE 
THIGH  unite  their  tendons  below  and  connect  with  the 
kneepan,  from  which  a  ligament  extends  fastening  it  to 
the  tibia  (shin)  at  the  upper  part.     (Fig.  2,  PI.  23.) 

537.  THE  USE  OF  THE  KNEEPAN  (Patella)  is  to  throw 
its  tendon  out  from  the  knee  and  allow  the  muscles  to 
act  with  increased  advantage.     A  Bursa  is  placed  below 
the  patella. 

538.  THE   LARGE  MUSCLES  ON  THE   BACK  OF  THE 
LOWER  LEG  unite  their  lower  tendons  to  form  the  heel' 
cord    (tendo  Achilles),  in  which  the   fibres  are,  so  to 
speak,  braided,  to  produce  the  strongest  possible  tendon. 
(Fig.  2,  PI.  22.) 

539.  THE  MUSCLES  UPON  THE  FRONT  PART  OF  THE 
LOWER  LEG,  as  the  figures  show,  send  down  their  tendons 
to  the  top  of  the  foot  and  outward  to  the  toes,  passing 
under  a  ligament  that  extends  from  the  outer  to  the 
inner  ankle,  and  binding  down   the  tendons,  between 
which  and  it  bursse  are  placed  to  prevent  friction. 

540.  THE  LONG  PERONEAL  is  situated  in  the  outside 
of  the  leg  :  its  tendon  extends  down  through  a  groove  at 
the  back  of  the  ankle,  turns  through  another  groove  be- 
neath the  foot,  which  it  crosses,  and  becomes  inserted 
into  the  bone  back  of  the  great  toe  (1st  Metatarsal). 
The  grooves   are  lined  with  bursa3.     It  has  the  most 
curiously  arranged  tendon  in  the  Body.     (Figs.  3,   4, 
PI.  23.) 


585.  What  said  of  —  ?    536.  What  said  of  —  ?    537.  What  is  —  ?    538.  What  said 
of  —  ?    539.  What  said  of  —  ?    540.  What  said  of — ? 


254  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

Muscles  of  the  Upper  Extremities. 

641.  Remark. — NEARLY  ALL  THE  MUSCLES  THUS  FAR  DESCRIBED  may 
assist  in  giving  latitude  of  motion  to  the  upper  extremities :  those  that 
act  on  the  scapulae  are  especially  to  be  classed  with  those  of  the  arms. 

542.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  UPPER  EXTREMITIES  are 
to  be  classed  as  those  acting  upon  the  shoulder-blades, 
and  moving  it  upon  the  chest  and  its  fulcrum,  the  clavi- 
cle; upon  the  upper  arm,  and  moving  it  upon  the  scapula; 
upon  the  lower  arm,  and  moving  it  upon  the  humerus ; 
acting  upon  the  wrist,  and  moving  it  upon  the  lower  arm ; 
and  upon  the  fingers,  moving  them  upon  their  joints. 

543.  SEVERAL  MUSCLES  EXTEND  FROM  THE  SCAPU- 
LA, and  are   attached   to,  the  humerus,  producing  its 
movements. 

544.  THE  BICEPS  arises,  as  its  name  signifies,  by 
two  heads  from  the  scapulae,  extends  down  the  front  of 
the  humerus,  and  is  inserted  in  the  radius,  which,  it  will 
be  remembered,  does  not  at  all  form  the  elbow-joint,  be- 
ing fastened  to  the  ulna  near  the  joint;  but  to  its  lower 
end  the  wrist  is  jointed,  and  when  the  hand  is  to  be 
lifted  it  is  better  to  have  the  biceps  take  hold  of  the 
radius  than  of  the  ulna.     (Fig.  6,  PL  24.) 

545.  THE  TRICEPS  arises  from  the  scapula,  extends 
down  the  back  of  the  humerus,  and  is  inserted  into  the 
point  of  the  elbow.     (Fig.  5,  PI.  24.) 

546.  THE  USE  OF  THE  BICEPS  AND  THE  TRICEPS  is  to 
raise  and  lower,  or  flex  and  extend,  the  forearm. 

547.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  FOREARM  EXTEND,  some 
from  one  bone  to  the  other,  to  roll  the  radius,  and  make 
the  hand  prone  or  supine ;  some  to  the  wrist,  to  bend  it 
upon  the  arm ;  and  again  others  to  the  very  finger-ends, 
passing  under  a  ligament  like  a  bracelet,  at  the  wrist, 
provided  with  numerous  bursaB  to  prevent  friction. 

548.  MUSCLES  EXTEND  FROM  THE  WRIST  and  from 


54X.  What  said  of  —  ?    642.  How  class  —  ?    548.  —  to  what?    644.  Describe  — * 
646.  Describe -.     646.  What  is-?    647.  How  do— ?    648.  How  do-? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    255 

the  ligaments  surrounding  it  to  the  thumb  and  fingers, 
and  to  some  of  the  tendons  extending  to  the  fingers' 
ends  small  muscles  are  attached,  extending  to  the  sides 
of  the  fingers ;  and  again  from  between  the  bones  of  the 
frame  of  the  hand,  muscles  spring  up  and  are  inserted 
into  the  finger-bones.  (Fig.  4,  PI.  25.) 

549.  Remark. — THE  FINGERS  ARE  THUS  INSURED  powerful,  various, 
and  rapid  motions,  to  the  utmost  extreme  that  can  be  demanded  of 
them,  and  they  can  express  almost  as  many  shades  of  emotion  as  can 
the  muscles  of  the  face,  or  the  flexible  organs  of  speech.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  watch  the  nimble  fingers  of  a  skilful  performer  fly  over 
the  piano-keys,  with  all  the  varied  touch  that  can  be  given  them,  to  be 
convinced  that  the  hand  is  a  masterpiece  of  workmanship,  and  could 
only  be  made  for,  as  it  can  only  be  perfectly  used  by,  a  well-developed 
mind,  which  it  also  serves  to  develope. 

550.     THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  LARYNX  may  best  be 
described  when  the  organs  of  speech  are  considered. 


General  View  of  Muscular  Action. 

661.  Remark. — Having  observed  the  special  uses  of  the  various 
muscles,  it  WILL  NOW  BE  PROPER  TO  NOTICE  the  general  effects  of  the  ac- 
tion of  all — what  is  for  their  good,  and  how  they  are  likely  to  suffer. 

552.  THE  MUSCLES,  VIEWED  AS  A  WHOLE,  excite  our 
admiration  on  account  of  the  compact  manner  in  which 
they  are  built  up,  and  the  graceful  outline  that  they  be- 
stow upon  every  part  of  the  Body. 

553.  Remark. — IT  WOULD  AT  FIRST  THOUGHT  APPEAR  that  the  mus- 
cles must  somewhat  interfere  with  each  other  and  produce  friction. 

554.  FRICTION  OF  THE  MUSCLES,  against  each  other,  is 
PREVENTED  by  the  beautiful  arrangement  of  the  areolar 
texture,  which  is  wrought  around  and  between  the  mus- 
cles, becoming  continuous  with  their  sheaths,  which  in 
fact  are  only  dense  forms  of  the  same  tissue.  This  tex- 
ture also  loosely  connects  the  muscles  with  the  all-sur- 


549.  What  are  —  ?   650.  What  said  of  —  ?   551.  What  —  ?   552.  What  said  of — ? 
658.  What  — ?    554.  How  is  — ? 


256 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 
FIG.  182. 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    257 

rounding  skin,  and  affords  a  nidus  at  various  points  for 
the  deposit  of  fat,  to  serve  as  a  packing,  or  to  round  the 
limbs  and  give  perfection  to  the  beautiful  forms  already 
moulded  by  the  skeleton  and  muscles. 

555.  Remark. — It  is  UTTERLY  IMPOSSIBLE  TO  EXPRESS  the  delightful 
emotions  the  mind  experiences  as  it  contemplates  the  developing  beauty 
that  begins  to  clothe  the  uncouthness  of  the  skeleton,  in  which  was 
really  the  basis  and  the  purpose  of  all  that  is  lovely  hi  the  human  form 
or  graceful  in  its  motions,  though  unseen  by  the  unprophetic  eye  of 
ignorance. 

556.  In  the  midst  of,  upon,  and  sometimes  through, 
the  muscles,  THE  BLOOD-TUBES   AND   NEKVES   EXTEND, 
from  their  centres  to  their  terminal  points ;  the  larger 
arteries  being  buried  deeply  beneath  muscles,  and  thus 
protected  from  injury  and  loss  of  heat. 

557.  Thus  EVERY  MUSCLE  BECOMES  a  heart  to  other 
Blood  than  that  which  it  receives,  since  it  presses  upon 
all  the  vessels  in  its  neighborhood,  and,  owing  to  valves 
in  the  veins,  has  the  effect  to  keep  the  Blood  moving 
through  its  circuit. 

558.  lllus. — When  a  person  is  bled  from  the  arm-vein,  he  is  direct- 
ed to  grasp  something  and  alternately  loosen  his  grasp,  when  each  con- 
traction  of  his  muscles  spirts  out  the  Blood. 

559.  Inf. — A  PERSON  MAY  CORRECTLY  BE  SAID  TO  HAVE  as  many 
voluntary  hearts  as  he  has  voluntary  muscles. 

560.  THE  POWER  WITH  WHICH  MUSCLES  CONTRACT  i£ 
almost  beyond  belief,  the  influence  which  controls  them 
acting  so  very  easily. 

561.  lllus. — A  person  walking  against  anything,  or  swinging  his 
hand  against  it  unexpectedly,  strikes  with  a  force  that  surprises  him. 
A  person  raising  or  holding  a  hundred  pounds'  weight  in  his  hand,  eigh- 
teen inches  from  his  elbow,  exerts  a  force  with  the  muscle  (Biceps)  up- 
on the  front  part  of  his  upper  arm  of  no  less  than  eighteen  hundred 
pounds,  or  almost  a  ton,  since  the  lower  end  of  the  muscle  is  attached 
not  more  than  an  inch  from  the  centre  of  the  joint  or  fulcrum.  When 
a  person  stoops  and  raises  himself,  the  power  exerted  by  the  muscles 

555.  What  —  ?     556.  Where  do  —  ?     55T.  What  does  —  ?     558.    Illustrate. 
559.  What  may  —  ?    560.  What  said  of  —  ?    561.  How  illustrate  ? 


258  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

straightening  his  trunk  and  head  upon  his  lower  extremities  is  equal  to 
many  thousand  pounds. 

562.  EVERY  EXERTION"  OP  MUSCULAR  POWER  is  AT- 
TENDED WITH  a  corresponding  amount  of  waste  in  the 
material  of  the  muscle,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the 
dark  red  color  of  the  Blood  increases  with  continued 
muscular  exertion,  as  seen  in  the  case  of  animals  hunted 
to  death,  and  by  the  fact  that  exertion  too  long  contin- 
ued decomposes  the  muscle  so  much  that  it  will  never 
recover. 

663.  Illus. — THE  AUTHOR  is  ACQUAINTED  WITH  A  CASE  where,  by 
over-exertion  at  a  fire,  a  person's  muscles  became  incapable  of  recovery, 
and  for  years  he  was  unable  to  move. 

564.  THE  DECOMPOSITION  OP  THE  MUSCULAR  SUB- 
STANCE renders  it  necessary  to  have  large  respiration 
and  great  muscular  exertion  go  hand  in  hand,  since 
oxygen  must  be  furnished  to  assist  in  removing  the  de- 
composed substance  from  the  muscle,  while  carbonic 
acid  must  also  be  removed  from  the  blood. 

565.  Inf. — THIS  ACCOUNTS  for  a  full  development  of  the  chest  and 
muscles  always  existing  together ;  the  former  is  a  sine  qua  non  of  the 
latter. 

666.  Inf. — THIS  ALSO  ACCOUNTS  FOR  the  fact  that  a  higher  activity 
of  the  muscles  is  attainable  in  cool  than  in  hot  weather. 

667.  Inf. — It  FOLLOWS  ALSO  that  the  circulation  should  be  more 
active  through  active  muscles  than  through  those  that  are  inactive. 

568.  EVERY  MUSCLE  is  a  heart,  especially  in  respect 
to  itself,  since  it  assists  in  the  circulation  of  so  much 
Blood,  at  least,  as  flows  through  itself. 

569.  EVERY  MUSCLE,  WHEN  IT  CONTRACTS,  presses  out 
the  Blood  it  contains,  chiefly  onward  into  the  veins,  and 
when  the  muscle  relaxes  (since  from  the  valves  in  the 
veins  the  Blood  cannot  flow  back,  and  since  there  is  a 
pressure  in  the  arteries  crowding  the  Blood  forward),  it 
gushes  through  every  part  of  the  muscle,  supplying  it 

662.  -  what  ?    563.  —  of  what?    564.  What  said  of—?    565.  —  for  what? 
566.  —  what  ?    567.  What  —  ?    568.  —  what  ?    569.  What  said  of  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF   TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    259 

with  nutritious  material  and  the  ever-active  scavenger, 
oxygen. 

670.  Inf. — Since  time  is  required  for  the  Blood  to  course  through 
the  relaxed  MUSCLE,  IT  SHOULD  NOT  BE  CONTRACTED  AGAIN  INSTANTLY  ;  if 
it  is,  it  cannot  renew  itself  as  rapidly  as  it  decomposes,  and  is  soon  ex- 
hausted. 

571.  Illus. — A  horse  driven  rapidly  with  a  light  load,  day  after  day, 
falls  off;  while  a  horse  driven  slowly,  drawing  heavy  loads,  improves. 
Stage-horses  improve  during  bad  going,  and  fall  off  when  the  roads  are 
good. 

672.  Inf. — Light  work  rapidly  performed  is  more  wearisome  than 
laborious  work. 

673.  Remark. — Such  work  as  sewing  is  very  wearing  if  long  con- 
tinued, from  the  frequent  contraction  of  muscles  which,  though  small 
and  few,  are  not  allowed  sufficient  time  for  relaxation ;  from  the  contin- 
ued contraction  of  some ;  from  the  entire  inactivity  of  others ;  from  be- 
ing done  in  close,  uninviting  rooms,  and  under  few  of  the  stimulating 
emotions,  hope,  good  pay,  etc.    Relief  can  and  should  be  given  in  most 
of  these  respects.    (See  Ap.  L.) 

574.  SINCE  THE  MUSCLES  REQUIRE  A  LARGE  FLOW 
OF  BLOOD,  it  follows  that  tight  clothing  of  the  chest, 
hands,  or  feet,  will  not  only  prevent  free  muscular  con- 
traction in  those  parts,  producing  stiff  and  awkward 
movements,  but  also  injure  the  muscles  by  cutting  off 
their  supply  of  Blood. 

575.  Particularly  WHEN  PERSONS  (or  animals)  ARE 
GROWING,  the  muscles  ought  not  to  be  constrained,  and 
should  not  be  over-tasked,  but  should  be  allowed  con- 
siderable repose,  and  a  free  circulation  promoted. 

576.  WHEN  A  FREE  CIRCULATION  is  PERMITTED,  and 
alternate   contraction  and  relaxation   of  the  muscles, 
with  proper  periods  of  repose,  are  allowed  or  caused, 
they  will  increase  in  size  and  vigor  wonderfully. 

677.  Illus. — A  BLACKSMITH'S  ARMS  become  large,  hard,  and  strong, 
from  the  effects  of  exercising  them,  but  the  right  is  no  healthier  than 
the  left  one. 


5TO.  What  said  of—?  5T1.  Illustrate.  5T2.  Illustrate.  573.  What  said  of  sewing? 
674.  What  follows?   5T5.  What  said  —  ?  576.  What  results— ?  577.  What  said  of-? 


260  DETAILED  SYNTHESIS. 

578.  WITHIN  CERTAIN    BOUNDS  THE   EXERCISE  OF 
THE  MUSCLES  PROMOTES  their  own  health  and  that  of 
other  parts  of  the  Body  ;  beyond  this,  exercise  is  ex- 
haustion. 

579.  THE   PERSON  WHOSE   BRAIN  MUST  BE  VERY 
ACTIVE,  cannot  digest  food  enough  for  that  and  for  con- 
stantly exercised  muscles.     To  be  a  Cicero  is  incompati- 
ble with  being  a  gladiator. 

580.  THE   MUSCLES   OF  THE   YOUNG   CRAVE   light, 
sportive  exercise,  and  they  should  be  indulged ;  as,  if 
they  are,  it  will  prevent  many  a  mischievous  outburst. 

581.  THE  YOUNG,  IN  PARTICULAR,  SHOULD  NOT  BE 
CONFINED  long  to  any  one  position,  either  by  means  of 
improper  clothing  or  on  any  other  account. 

582.  EXERCISES   UNDER  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  MUSIC 
are  most  healthful  as  well  as  pleasant.     Military  exer- 
cises are  admirable  for  the  health  and  for  mental  effect. 

583.  EXERCISES  OUT  OF  DOORS  are  better  than  in- 
doors.    Horseback-riding  is  one  of  the  best  exercises, 
giving   sweet  converse  with  Nature,  and   building  up 
both  body  and  mind  at  the  same  time. 

584.  IT  MUST  ALSO  BE  REMEMBERED  that  muscular  ex- 
ercise— every  contraction  of  a  muscle — is  attended  with 
waste  of  material  of  a  very  expensive  character;  there- 
fore no  more  muscular  exercise  should  be  caused  than  is 
necessary  for  maintaining  health  and  accomplishing  the 
object  in  view,  for  all  excess  of  exercise  is  costly. 

685.    Inf. — EVERT  MECHANIC  should  have  his  tools  handy,  for  he  not 
only  loses  time,  but  loses  money,  by  the  unnecessary  muscular  action. 

586.  Inf. — EVERY  FARMER  should  have  everything  convenient ;  each 
unnecessary  step  destroys  other  labor  as  well  as  that.     Let  the  head 
save  the  heel. 

587.  Inf. — In  particular,  EVERT  HOUSE   and  its  furniture,    espe- 
cially the  kitchen  furniture,  should  be  made  convenient.     How  many 
thousands  of  unnecessary  steps  do  over-worked  women  take  in  the  year 
for  want  of  convenient  arrangements !    how  many  thousands  of  other 


578.  What  does  -?    679.  What  said  of  —  ?    580.  What  do  -?    581.  How  -? 
582.  What  said  of  —  ?    583.  What  said  of  —  ?    584.  What  — ?    585.  What  said  — ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    261 

inconvenient  and  unnecessary  exertions !     This  matter  may  with  great 
profit  be  improved.     (See  Ap.  L.) 

588.  PROPERLY  EXERCISED,  THE  MUSCLES  ARE  great 
sources  of  enjoyment  through  their  own  sensatory 
nerves,  and  by  the  sensations  they  induce  through  other 
organs  by  increasing  the  activity  of  the  circulation, 
and  the  volume  of  fresh  air  which  is  inspired. 

689.  Remark. — There  would  be  no  difficulty  in  inducing  the  inac- 
tive to  take  requisite  exercise,  if  they  could  only  appreciate  the  truth  of 
the  previous  paragraph. 

590.  There  SEEMS  TO  THE  AUTHOR  NO  DOUBT  that 
the  digestory  canal  or  some  of  its  glands  is  an  elimina- 
tory  organ  to  the  Muscles,  which  by  action   furnish  the 
material  that  in  the  most  healthy  manner  stimulates 
elimination.     This  should  be  a  very  powerful  motive  to 
take  proper  exercise. 

591.  THE  EXERCISE  OF  THE  MUSCLES  MAKES  A  DE- 
MAND for  food,  producing  appetite — one  of  the  greatest 
of  good  things  for  which  to  be  thankful. 

592.  EXERCISE  IMPROVES  THE  COMPLEXION  by  the 
results  mentioned  in  the  two  preceding  paragraphs  (for 
there  is  nothing  more  evidently  intimate  than  the  condi- 
tion of  the  skin  and  the  digestory  canal),  by  circulating 
the  Blood  freely  to  the  skin,  increasing  the  heat  of  the 
Body  and  starting  the  perspiration,  and  particularly  by 
causing  the  inspiration  of  large  quantities  of  oxygen. 
A  beautiful  paint,  coming  from  within,  is  thus  delicately 
spread  under  the  influence  of  buoyant  emotions,  those 
matchless  painters,  that  will  challenge  the  admiration 
of  even  the  envious. 

593.  THE  MUSCLES  ARE  THUS   SHOWN  TO  BE   our 
friends  as  well  as  our  servants,  our  entertainers  as  well 
as  our  dependents,  demanding  a  support,  yet,  if  properly 
cared  for,  merrily  repaying  their  cost  with  interest ;  they 
are  the  poor  man's  necessity,  the  rich  man's  comfort,  the 

586.  What  said  of  —  ?    587.  What  said  of  —    588.  What  —  ?    590.  What  —  ? 
591.  —  for  what  ?    592.  How  does  —  f    598.  What  —  ? 


262  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

physician  to  good  health ;  they  give  beauty  to  the  grace- 
ful, and  may  be  a  mine  of  wealth  to  all,  that  princes  can- 
not buy  nor  untold  riches  equal.* 


SECTION  in. 

Nerves. 

594.  It  IS  VERY  EASY  TO  UNDERSTAND  the  Structure, 

general  arrangement,  and  purpose'  of  the  nerves,  but 
precisely  how  they  perform  their  duties  is  one  of  the 
mysteries  of  life  from  which  the  curtain  has  not  yet 
been  lifted. 

595.  NERVES    ARE   either   white   or   reddish   gray 
pulpy  cords,  about  the  consistence  of  new-made  cheese, 
of  various  sizes,  extending  either  between  nervous  cen- 
tres, when  they  are  called  commissures,  or  between  a 
nervous  centre  and  some  other  part  of  the  Body. 

596.  NERVES  LARGE  ENOUGH  TO  BE  SEEN  WITH  THE 
NAKED   EYE   are  bundles,  covered  by  a  thin   sinewy 
sheath.     Hence  a  nerve  readily  splits  up  into  delicate 
fibres. 

597.  NERVOUS  FIBRES  ARE  CONSTRUCTED   of  fibril- 
lae,  having  three  parts,  an  outer  envelope  or  sheath  nu- 
cleated like  basement  membrane,  inclosing  a  layer  of  oily 
substance,  called  the  Medullary  sheath,  in  the  centre  of 

*  The  author  has  not  thought  it  necessary  in  this  work  to  speak  of  any 
particular  calisthenic  or  gymnastic  exercises,  since  there  are  so  many  good 
works  upon  those  subjects.  The  classes  of  motion  are  few,  and  may  be 
traced  by  the  divisions  or  classes  of  muscles  laid  down.  Any  kind  of  ex- 
ercise that  brings  into  action  all  the  muscles  gracefully  (and  that  is  best 
done  under  the  influence  of  music),  without  great  exertion,  and  excites 
active  respiration,  is  sufficient,  while  exercises  that  cause  the  "  holding  of 
the  breath,"  or  those  thaj  put  a  person  "  out  of  breath,"  are  not  advisable. 
Indeed,  the  chief  benefit  of  any  exercise  is  derived  from  its  causing  in- 
creased respiration.  Therefore,  muscular  exercise,  to  be  advantageous, 
must  be  taken  in  pure  air,  and  with  the  chest  perfectly  free  to  move. 

Foot-note.  What  not  necessary  ?  What  sufficient?  594.  What  — ?  695.  What 
—  •  597.  How-? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    263 

which  is  the  part  called  the  axis  of  the  nerve.     The  two 
latter  substances  are  called  nervine. 

598.  THE  NERVOUS  FILAMENTS  OR  FIBRILL^  differ 
in  size  in  different  cases,  but  each  one  is  uniform  in  diam- 
eter, and  continuous  from  end  to  end. 

599.  THE  EXTREMITY  OF  A  NERVE,  CONNECTED  WITH 
ITS  CENTRE  or  ganglia,  is  called  its  origin,  inner,  central, 
or  centripetal  extremity,  while  THE  OTHER  extremity  is 
called  its  termination,  outer,  or  centrifugal  extremity, 
though  in  case  of  sensation  the  influence  acting  through 
the  nerve  begins  at  what  is  called  the  termination  of  the 
nerve. 

600.  IN  THE  COURSE  OF  THE  NERVES  numerous  in- 
stances occur  of  filaments  or  bundles  of  them  passing 
across  from  one  nerve  to  another,  particularly  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  neck.  This  constitutes  what  is  called  a  plexus. 

FIG.  183. 

*^=-— ^ 
Fig.  183  represents  a  plex- 
us, 7,  formed  by  side  nerves, 
1  and  2,  interchanging  two 
fibres;  3,  a  branch  of  three 
fibres ;  4,  another,  of  two ;  5 
and  6,  two  branches  of  one 
each. 

601.  THE  USE  OF  A  PLEXUS  is  to  allow  nerves  that 
are  extending  from  different  centres  to  the  same  part  to 
be  enclosed  in  a  common  sheath. 

602.  There  are  THREE  DIVISIONS  WITH  WHICH  THE 
NERVES  CONNECT  *.  the  Brain,  the  spinal  cord,  the  Sym- 
pathetic Ganglia;  hence, 

603.  THE   NERVES   ARE   CALLED  the   Cranio-spinal 
nerves,  and  the  Sympathetic. 

604.  THE  SYMPATHETIC  NERVES  are  of  two  kinds,  a 
white  kind,  finer  than  the  Cranio-spinal,  and  a  much 
greater  number  of  a  reddish  gray  character. 

698.  What  said  of  —  ?    599.  What  said  of  -?    600.  What  occurs  -  ?    Describe 
Fig,  188.    601.  What  is  —  ?    602.  What  —  ?    603.  How  —  ?    604.  What  said  of  — ? 


264  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

605.  THE  SPINAL  NERVES  MAY  BE  DIVIDED  into  two 
classes :  1st,  those  that  have  their  origin  or  inner  extrem- 
ities in  the  spinal  cord,  where  they  connect  with  the 
ganglionic  cells  of  the  cord;  and  2d,  those  that  ex- 
tend up  through  the  spinal  cord  to  the  Brain,  and  which 
are  truly  Cranial  nerves. 

606.  Inf. — The  SPINAL  COED  is  partly  a  nerve,  or  bundle  of  nerves, 
and  partly  constructed  of  nervous  centres  or  ganglia. 

607.  THE   CRANIAL   NERVES,   including   the    latter 
division  of  the  spinal,  are  divisible  into  two  classes,  the 
Motor  and  the  Sensatory. 

608.  THE  MOTORY  AND  SENSATORY  NERVES  are  alike 
except  that  on  the  latter,  quite  close  to  their  origin, 
there  is  a  ganglion,  the  use  of  which  is  not  understood. 

609.  IT  is  ALSO  OBSERVABLE  that  the  Motor  nerves 
are  connected  with  the  front  part  of  the  spinal  cord  and 
the  Sensatory  with  the  back  part.  (See  Figs.  76  and  69.) 

610.  ALL  THE  SPINAL  NERVES  have  two  roots  or  ori- 
gins, and  some  fibres  of  both  commence  in  the  cord,  and 
some  of  both  extend  to  the  Brain.     Some  of  the  nerve- 
fibres  commence  from  the  cells  of  the  ganglia  on  the 
roots  of  the  sensatory  nerves. 

611.  SOME   OF  THE  CRANIAL  NERVES  proper  have 
two  roots,  but  most  of  them  but   one,  and  those  are 
either  all  motory  or  all  sensatory. 

612.  At  their  outer  extremities  SOME  OF  THE  NERVES 
lose  their  external  sheath  and  TERMINATE  by  their  axis- 
part  on  the  sheaths  of  the  muscular  fibrillse. 

613.  NERVES    ALSO   TERMINATE  in  three  peculiar 
bodies  or  corpuscles. 

614.  THE  PACINIAN  BODIES  are  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  layers  of  sinewy  tissue,  the  spaces  between  which 
are  filled  with  a  colorless  liquid.     The  axis  only  of  the 
nerve  extends  along  the  centre.     The  use  or  mode  of  ac- 
tion is  unknown. 


605.  How  — ?  606.  What  said  of-?  607.  Class—.  60S.  Compare -.  609  What-? 
610.  What  true  of— ?  611.What  said  of  roots  of— ?  612.  How  do-?  614.Whatare-? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    265 


FIG.  184. 


Fig.  184  repre- 
sents, 8,  a  cluster 
of  Pacinian  bod- 
ies :  1,  much  mag- 
nified body ;  2, 
pedicle;  3,  por- 
tion of  nerve ;  4, 
several  nerve-fi- 
bres ;  5,  sinewy 
sheath  ;  6,  nerve 
filament;  7,  its 
axis. 

615.  TACTILE  CORPUSCLES  are  very  small,  composed 
of  membrane  filled  with  granular  matter,  connected  with, 
usually,  two,  but  sometimes  only  one,  or  even  three  or 
four,  nerve  filaments.    They  exist  in  the  papillae  of  touch 
of  the  hands  and  feet. 

616.  THE  CORPUSCLES  OF  KRAUSE  are  still  smaller 
spherical  bodies  filled  with  a  transparent  soft  substance, 
with  one  or  two  nerve  filaments  entering  them. 

617.  ALL  THESE  BODIES  are  supposed  to  be  concern- 
ed in  the  production  of  sensation,  but  how,  is  a  question. 

618.  Remark. — It  is  not  certain  that  all  the  methods  of  termination 
of  the  nerves  are  known. 

619.  THE  NERVES  EXTEND  BETWEEN  THEIR  ORIGIN 
AND  TERMINATION  by  the  most  direct  course,  which  is 
shown  by  the  figures. 

620.  THE  NERVES  WILL  TOLERATE  considerable  ex- 
tension without  injury,  are  readily  repaired  when  in- 
jured ;  and  when  even  a  section  is  made,  or  a  portion 
removed  of  considerable  extent,  they  will  be  repaired  in 
a  short  time. 

621.  THEY    ARE    PASSIVE    AGENTS,   like   telegraph 
wires,  for  the  transmission  of  influences ;  and  whether 
the   influence   in  passing  through  them  necessitates  a 
change  in  their  constitution,  or  leaves  them  unaffected, 
is  not  known,  nor  can  it  be  ascertained  at  present  how 

Describe  Fig.  184.    615.  What  are— ?    616.  What  are  —  ?   617.  What  said  of—? 
619.  How  do  —  ?    620.  What  will  —  ?    621.  How  are  nerves  —  ? 
12 


•266 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


rapidly  they  change  nor  how  great  is  their  requirement 
for  nutrition.     From  the  small  number  of  Blood-tubes 


FIG.  185 


Fig.  185  represents  front,  side,  and  under  view  of  brain,  front  view  of 
cord  and  nerves  leading  from  it,  the  large  branches  being  correctly,  the 
small  ones  ideally,  drawn.  Fig.  186  shows  the  end  of  a  finger,  natural 
size,  the  nerves  enlarged.  Fig.  187,  a  front  view  of  the  brain-cord  and 
roots  of  nerves  enclosed  in  the  membranes  of  the  cranio-spinal  cavities, 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    267 

found  in  large  masses  of  white  fibres,  it  is  not  supposed 
to  be  great. 

622.     Remark. — The  special  nerves  may  best  be  described  as  parts 
of  apparatus. 

SECTION  IV. 

Ganglia. 

623.  GANGLIA  are  organs  designed  to  excite  activi- 
ty (of  mind,  of  muscle,  of  the  secretory  tissue),  the  es- 
sential part  of  which  is  cells,  in  which  the  power  of  ex- 
citing activity  is  developed. 

624.  THE  CELLS  OF  GANGLIA  ARE  PRODUCED  in  the 
midst  of  a  granular  substance,  and  are  connected  with 
the  nervous  fibres,  through  which  the  cells  act  and  are 
acted  upon. 

625.  How  THE  CELLS  ACT,  or  how  they  are  acted 
upon,  is  not  understood ;  it  is  said  to  be  by  nervous  in- 
fluence, but  what  that  is,  or  how  produced,  or  how  it 
acts,  is  not  known ;  it  is  so  called  because  it  acts  through 
the  nerves,  and  they  are  concerned  in  and  essential  to  its 
action. 

626.  Whether  THE  NERVOUS  INFLUENCE  is  ALWAYS 
ONE  THING,  or  whether  it  varies  according  to  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  acts,  is  not  known ;  it  is  only 
certain  that  in  some  way  it  produces  different  effects  in 
different  cases. 

627.  It  is  ALSO  CERTAIN  that  the  exertion  of  this  in- 
fluence, either  upon  or  from  the  cells,  is  attended  by  a 
change  in  them,  requiring  their  nutrition  in  harmony 
with  their  action. 

628.  THE  GANGLIA  MUST  ALSO  BE  CONSTRUCTED  of 
fine  fibres  of  sinewy  tissue  woven  through  and  around 
them,  and  if  they  have  any  free  surfaces  liable  to  fric- 
tion they  must  be  covered  with  secretory  tissue ;  and  to 

628.  What  are— ?    624.  How  are  —  ?    625.  How— ?    626.1s—?    627.  What 
Is  —  ?    628.  How  must  —  ?    What  tissues  in  —  ? 


268  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

supply  nutrition  to  the  very  active  gray  part,  an  almost 
infinite  number  of  capillaries  must  be  woven  through 
it.  Thus  Ganglia  require  three  tissues  for  their  con- 
struction : 

f  Nervous  T.    \  ^& 
_  1  White. 

GANGLIA  =  j  Smewy  T 

[Secretory  T. 

629.  THE  RELATIVE  POSITIONS  OF  THE  GRAY  AND 
THE  WHITE  TISSUES  is  not  a  uniform  or  essential  mat- 
ter ;  sometimes  the  gray  is  external,  sometimes  internal, 
sometimes  interlaid ;  thus  the  color  of  the  Ganglia  will 
differ. 

630.  THE  SIZE  OF  GANGLIA  varies  from  that  of  a  pin's 
head  to  the  weight  of  a  pound,  and  their  form  is  equally 
variable,  evidently  depending  on  the  position  in  which 
it  is  convenient  to  have  them  located. 

631.  SOME   OF  THE   GANGLIA  HAVE   free   surfaces, 
and   some  of  them  are   merely  surrounded  by  a  con- 
nective, sinewy  tissue,  supporting  and  retaining  them 
in  place. 

632.  Nothing  is  uniform,  nothing  therefore  is  ES- 
SENTIAL IN  GANGLIA  except  a  proper  number  of  perfectly 
constituted  nerve-cells  connected  with  nerve-fibres,  and 
supplied  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  good  Blood  to  sus- 
tain their  nutrition,  upon  which  their  continued  action 
depends. 

Remark. — We  will  now  describe  the  different  ganglia,  when  the 
great  facts  of  the  preceding  paragraph  will  become  still  more  apparent. 

633.  THE  GANGLIA  ARE  CLASSED  as  Cranial  or  Brain- 
al,  Spinal,  and  Sympathetic. 

Remark. — THE  GANGLIA  ARE  OFTEN  CLASSED  as  Cerebro-spinal  and 
Sympathetic,  and  the  former  subdivided :  this  is  well  except  as  to  name, 
which  should  be  Cranio-spinal,  for  all  the  ganglia  do  not  belong  either 
to  the  Cerebrum  or  Spinal  cord,  some  forming  the  Cerebellum,  &c.  , 

629.  What  said  of  -  ?  630.  What  is  -  ?  631.  What  do  —  ?  682.  What  is  —  f 
633  How  are— ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    269 

Cranial  Ganglia. 

634.  IF  THE  UPPER  PART  OF  THE  SKULL  AND  ITS  UN- 
ING  BE  CUT  THROUGH  AND  LIFTED  FROM  THEIR  PLACES,  the 

brains  will  be  presented  to  view,  standing  up,  a  jelly-like, 
tremulous  mass,  with  a  surface  perfectly  smooth,  glairy, 
and  well  fitted  to  the  portion  of  skull  removed.  (See 
Figs.  45  and  46.) 

635.  AN    EXAMINATION    WILL    DETERMINE    that    the 

surface  under  view  is  an  exquisitely  beautiful  specimen 
of  secretory  tissue,  composed  of  a  single  layer  of  thin, 
scale-shaped,  but  not  dry  cells,  upon  a  basement  mem- 
brane supported  by  a  mere  shadow,  so  delicate  is  it,  of 
sinewy  fibres. 

636.  This   SPIDER'S   WEB   MEMBRANE   (ARACHNOID) 
extends  over  the  general  surface  of  the  brains,  without 
following  its  smaller  indentations,  passing  across  from 
point  to  point,  being  parallel  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
lining  of  the  skull,  with  which  in  life  it  is  in  contact.    At 
the  indentations  of  the  brain  the  end  of  a  small  tube  can 
be  adroitly  inserted,  beneath,  and  air  blown  under  it, 
raising  it  up  and  bringing  it  into  view  very  beautifully. 

637.  Remark. — THE  OUTER  SURFACE  OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  THE  INNER 
SURFACE  OF  THE  LINING  OF  THE  SKULL  are  precisely  alike,  and  at  various 
points  will  be  found  to  be  continuous ;  and  the  idea  is  usually  expressed 
by  saying  the  covering  of  the  brain  is  reflected  on  the  lining  of  the 
skull,  or  the  inner  layer  of  the  lining  of  the  skull  is  reflected  over  the 
brain. 

638.  WHEN  THE  ARACHNOID  is  REMOVED,  the  surface 
below  is  found  to  be  very  uneven,  corrugated,  or  convo- 
luted, like  the  surface  of  a  peach-stone,  the  eminences 
being  called  convolutions,  and  the  indentations  being 
called  anfractuosities.     Near  the  surface  THE  ANFRACTU- 
OSITIES   ARE   GROOVES,  but  a  little  deeper  their   sides 
touch,  as  represented  in  the  Figs. 

639.  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  CONVOLUTIONS  AND  AN- 


634.  What  —  ?    635.  What  will  — ?    Name  of  membrane?    636.  How  does  — 
extend?    637.  What  said  —  ?  638.  What  seen  —  ?  Where  are  —  ?  639.  What  is  — » 


270  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

FRACTUOSITIES  is  a  network  of  minute  capillaries  sup- 
ported by  a  small  number  of  delicate  sinewy  fibres  called 
the  pia  mater. 

640.  FROM  THE  pia  mater  STILL  SMALLER  CAPILLARIES 

EXTEND   INTO   THE    STRUCTURE   BELOW,  Supplying   it    Still 

more  intimately  and  abundantly  with  nutritious  blood. 
On  the  other  hand,  veins  lead  from  the  pia  mater  direct- 
ly into  the  sinuses  or  large  veins  of  the  lining  of  the 
skull,  in  order  that  the  Blood  may  flow  rapidly  away, 
and  do  not  follow  back  a  more  tortuous  path  along- 
side the  arteries,  as  is  the  case  elsewhere ;  this  shows 
the  importance  of  a  free  passage  from  the  brain  of  its 
waste  material. 

641.  A  VIEW  OP  THE  BRAIN  FROM  ABOVE  SHOWS  it 
divided  on  the  central  line  by  a  deep  fissure,  in  which  is 
the  membrane  called  the  falx  (36,  Fig.  160),  into  what 
are  called  the  right  and  left  hemispheres,  or  right  and 
left  Brains. 

642.  AN  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  SIDES  OF  THE  FISSURE 

lying  against  the  falx,  DETERMINES  that  the  convolutions 
and  anfractuosities  exist  there  as  well  as  externally. 

643.  THE  CONVOLUTIONS  ARE  NOT  EXACTLY  ALIKE  in 
the  two  sides,  much  less  in  two  persons ;  and  thus  is  sus- 
tained what  was  said,  that  form,  etc.,  are  not  essentials. 

644.  By  removing  the  side  of  the  skull,  and  VIEW- 
ING THE  BRAIN  AT  THE  SIDE,  IT  WILL  APPEAR  to  be  con- 
structed of  two  parts,  one,  about  one  eighth  the  size  of 
the  whole,  being  situated  under  the  back  part  of  the 
other,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  partition  or  shelf.    The 
larger  is  called  the  cerebrum,  and  the  smaller  the  cere- 
bellum. 

645.  THE  CEREBELLUM  has  a  more  even   external 
surface  than  the  cerebrum,  and  a  shallow  groove  at  its 
back  part,  on  the  middle  line,  occupied  by  a  membrane 
corresponding  to  the  falx. 


640.  Why  do  -  ?    641.  What  does  —  ?    Describe  falx,  Fisr.  160.    642.  What  does 
—  ?    648.  Where  are  —  ?    644.  What  —  ?    645.  What  said  of  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    271 


646.  THE  CEREBRUM,  VIEWED  AT  THE  SIDE,  EXHIBITS 
by  its  form  three  divisions,  called  the  anterior,  middle, 
and  posterior  lobes,  only  superficial,  not  corresponding 
to  any  uses,  and  only  serving  as  convenient  designations. 

647.  Below,  about  the  centre  of  the  cerebrum,  and 
at  the  front  of  the  cerebellum,  the  spinal  cord  (Fig.  45) 
is   seen,   called,   while  in  the   cranium,   THE   MEDULLA 
OBLONGATA  (oblongated  marrow). 

648.  IF  THE  CRANIUM  HAD  BEEN  INVERTED,  AND  THE 

LOWER  PART  REMOVED,  many  nerves,  their  sheath,  and 
arteries  must  have  been  severed,  and  the  spinal  cord  cut 
across,  and  instead  of  the  general  spherical  form  of  the 
upper  surface,  a  very  uneven  general  surface  of  the  cere- 
brum would  have  been  presented,  as  in  the  subjoined 
figure,  representing  the  base  of  the  brains  turned  up- 
ward and  the  cushion  (subarachnoidean  texture)  removed. 


FIG.  188. 


Fig.  188.  In  this 
view,  the  cerebellum,  7, 
is  seen  above  the  back 
part  (posterior  lobe)  of 
the  cerebrum  and  the 
shelf  between  them ; 
the  oblongata,  30,  is  in 
view ;  also  the  pons,  16, 
and  the  commence- 
ments of  12  pairs  of 
nerves ;  1,  2,  is  the  an- 
terior and  posterior  part 
of  the  deep  fissure  near- 
ly dividing  the  cerebri ; 
3,  anterior,  4,  middle 
lobes ;  the  convolu- 
tions of  the  under  sur- 
face of  which  are  evi- 
dently numerous,  as 
they  also  are  above 
the  cerebellum. 


646.  What  does  —  ?    647.  What  is  —  ?    648.  What  would  have  been  presented 
—  ?    Describe  Fig.  188. 


272  DETAILED  SYNTHESIS. 

649.  THE  CONTENTS  OF  THE  CRANIUM,  VIEWED  ON 
AT.T.  SIDES,  present  the  right  and  left  cerebrum,  cerebel- 
lum oblongata,  Pons,  and  commencement  of  twelve  pairs 
of  nerves. 

650.  THE  CRANIAL  GANGLIA,  commonly  called  "  the 
BRAIN,  the  seat  of  the  intellect,  the  will,  the  sensations, 
and  the  emotions  "   (Leidy),  viewed  externally,  form  a, 
large  oval,  spheroidal  mass,  shaped  much  like  a  duck's 
egg,  with  a  third  of  the  under  part  of  the  smaller  end  re^ 
moved,  and,  with  the  enveloping  membranes,  completely 
fill  the  Cranium. 

651.  THE  BRAIN  VARIES  in  size  and  form  in  different 
persons  and  at  different  ages ;  "  the  average  weight  in 
males  is  fifty  ounces ;  in  females,  forty-five ;  the  maxi- 
mum sixty-four,  and  the  minimum  twenty." — Draper. 

652.  Remark. — It  does  not  necessarily  have  the  same  form  when 
having  the  same  size,  for  the  parts  of  it  are  differently  proportioned  hi 
different  cases.     The  cerebellum  averages  one  eighth  the  weight  of  the 
whole ;  it  may  be  one  third  or  one  twelfth.     Nor,  if  the  proportional 
weight  of  the  parts  and  that  of  the  whole  are  the  same  in  two  brains,  is 
it  necessary  that  the  particular  forms  of  each  should  be  the  same.     It 
must  be  remembered  THAT  THE  ONLY  ESSENTIAL  THING  FOR  EFFICIEN- 
CY IN  NERVOUS  CENTRES  are  cells,  communicating  fibres,  and  a  copious 
supply  of  good  Blood. 

653.  IN  EARLY  LIFE  the  elasticity  of  a  frame  renders 
other  protection  against  jars  of  the  Brain  ^nnecessary ; 
but  as  life  advances,  in  addition  to  the  increasing  quan- 
tity of  marrow  in  the  bones,  the  Brain  requires  some- 
thing more. 

654.  THE     ARACHNOID    MEMBRANE    BENEATH    THE 
BRAIN  increases  in  strength  by  addition  to  its  sinewy 
fibres,  which,  also  in  the  form  of  areolar  texture,  grow 
in  between  the  arachnoid  and  pia  mater,  forming  what 
is  called  the  subarachnoidean  areolar  texture,  the  areolas 
of  which  are  filled  with  serous  fluid. 


649.  What  said  of—?    650.  Viewed  externally,  what  are  — ?    651.  How— f 
652.  W  hat  are  —  f    65&  What  does  brain  require  —  ?    654.  What  said  of  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    273 


655.  Upon  the  subarachnoi-  Fia  189> 
dean  tissue,  as  upon  a  hydrosta- 
tic bed,  THE  BRAIN  is  PROTECTED 

from  the  least  effect  of  the  jars 
sent  up  through  the  body.  In 
old  age,  in  the  thickest  part, 
this  has  become  an  inch  thick. 
(See  a,  adjoining  Fig.) 

656.  THE   BRAIN  is  FULLY 
PROTECTED  by  the  curved,  arch- 
ed,  and  irregular  form  of   the 

skeleton,  and  by  the  flexures  of  the  joints  by  which  jars 
are  dispersed ;  by  the  cartilages  of  the  joints ;  by  the 
spongiform  structure  of  the  bones  and  the  marrow  they 
contain ;  by  the  subarachnoidean  cushion ;  by  the  arched 

FIG.  190. 

Fig.  190  represents  the 
cerebri  sliced  down  to  the 
upper  surface  of  4,  the 
bridge  (corpus  callosum) 
of  fibres  that  extends  across 
from  one  to  the  other.  5, 
5,  are  the  deep  fissures  be- 
hind and  before,  that  ex- 
tend up  between  the 
parts  removed  ;  the  bottom 
of  the  middle  part  of  the  fis- 
sure is  represented  length- 
wise the  centre  of  4.  This 
fissure  is  occupied  by  the 
falx,  the  lower  edge  of  the 
central  part  of  which 
touches  4,  the  ends  sink- 
ing down  at  5,  5.  1  is  the 
white  tissue,  its  fibres  be- 
ing interlaced  by  fine  sin- 
ewy fibres ;  the  dots  show 
sections  of  a  few  capillaries 
extending  among  them  ;  2, 
the  gray  tissue,  the  dark  line  indicating  the  anfractuosity  or  the  division 
of  capillaries  between  touching  portions  of  the  surface  of  the  gray  Tissue. 


Describe  Fig.  189.  655.  From  what  —  ?  656.  Enumerate  the  means  by  which  • 
Describe  Fig.  190. 

12* 


274 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


form  of  the  skull  and  the  different  constitutions  of  its 
three  tables ;  by  the  membranes  within  and  on  the  out- 
side of  the  skull ;  by  muscles ;  by  the  skin,  and  by  the 
hair. 

657.  IF  A  PORTION  OF  THE  UPPER  PART  (Cerebrum) 
OF  THE  BRAIN  is  SLICED  OFF,  the  gray  external  tissue  is 
found  to  be  only  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  with- 
in which  the  white  tissue  alone  is  found. 

658.  IF   THE    GRAY    SUBSTANCE    SHOULD  BE  REMOVED 

FROM  THE  WHITE  and  spread  out,  it  would  present  a  fig- 
ure several  times  larger  than  it  now  does ;  that  is,  the 
pia  mater  is  several  times  the  extent  of  the  arachnoid. 

659.  IT  WILL  BE  OBSERVED  that  in  the  fissures  the 
convolutions  are  proportionately  as  numerous  and  the 
anfractuosities  as  deep  as  described  in  ^[  642. 

660.  THE  PROBLEM  SOLVED  BY  THE  ARRANGEMENT 

Fia   I'.H. 

Fig.  191  represents  the 
brain  sliced  a  little  lower 
than  in  the  preceding  figure. 
1,  the  white  tissue;  2,  the 
gray;  3,  4,  the  front  and 
back  portions  of  the  bridge 
or  corpus  callosum,  the  mid- 
dle portion  being  removed 
and  exposing  the  ventricles, 
in  which,  and  forming  the 
sides  and  floor  of  which, 
ganglia  are  seen.  Portions 
of  the  brain  are  cut  out  to 
show  7  and  6,  extensions  of 
the  ventricles;  8  is  one  of 
the  largest  ganglia,  and  from 
the  white  and  gray  substance 
being  in  alternate  layers,  it 
appears  striped,  hence  its 
name,  striated  body  (corpus 
striatum);  19,  portion  of 

thalamus;  14,  hippocampus;  18,  a  plexus  of  capillary  vessels  (the  choroid 

plexus). 


657.  What  — ?    658.  What  extent  of  surface  could  be  shown  — ?    659.  What  — 
in  fissures?    660.  What  is  -  ?    D«scribe  Fig.  191. 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    275 

OF  THE  GRAY  TISSUE  evidently  is  to  pack  in  the  smallest 
space  a  large  amount  of  gray  tissue,  the  cells  of  which 
shall  be  in  connection  with  white  fibres. 

661.  IF  A  HORIZONTAL  SECTION  THROUGH  THE  LOWER 

PORTIONS  OF  THE  CEREBRi  BE  MADE,  or  if  a  perpendicular 
section  of  the  brains  be  made  on  the  line  of  the  fissures, 
or  if  the  corpus  callosum  be  cut  out,  numerous  small 
ganglia  will  be  revealed  as  located  in  the  lower  central 
portions  of  the  Brain  and  in  front  of  the  cerebelli. 

662.  THE  CENTRAL  GANGLIA  CAN  ALSO  BE  EXPOSED 
by  raising. up  and  turning  forward  the  back  part  of  the 
cerebri,  and  cutting  a  few  fibres  that  confine  them. 

663.  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  GANGLIA  CAN  BE 
BEST  UNDERSTOOD  by  constructing  the  Brain  from  below; 
beginning  with  the  spinal  cord,  where  it  enters  the  cra- 
nium, ganglia  of  small  size  are  added  to  it,  enlarging 
its  size  into  the  oblongata ;  to  the  back  part  are  added 
the  cerebelli,  from  the  right  to  the  left  of  which,  around 
the  upper  part  of  the  oblongata,  extends  the  pons  (16, 
Fig.  188),  above  which  other  ganglia  are  placed,  some  of 
the  fibres  from  the  cord  and  nerves  extending  into  them 
all,  and  into  the  cerebelli,  while  the  remainder  extend 
upward  and  forward  into  the  great  ganglia,  the  cerebri. 

664.  ACCORDING  TO  THE  SUPPOSITION,  THE  CEREBRI 
WOULD  BE  LIKE  two  great  pear-shaped  masses,  and  the 
whole  chain  of  ganglia  would  present  a  very  irregular 
outline,  not  susceptible  of  protection,    and   altogether 
uncouth. 

665.  Hence  THE  MASSIVE  CEREBRI  ARE,  so  to  speak, 
FOLDED  BACK,  over,  upon,  and  by  the  side  of  other  parts, 
slightly  overhanging  the  cerebelli,   and  quite  covering 
in  the  central  ganglia. 

666.  WHERE  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  CEREBRI  COME  IN 
CONTACT  WITH  THE  CENTRAL  GANGLIA,  they  do  not  ad- 
here to  them,  but  both  surfaces  are  free,  and  moistened 

661.  What  — ?    662.  How  —  ?    663.  How  — ?    Construct  the  Brain  from  below 
by  successively  adding  ganglia,   664.  What  — ?  665.  How— ?   668.  What  said  of — ? 


276  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

with  the  same  fluid  as  if  they  had  not  been  thus  placed. 
These  places  are  called  ventricles. 

667.  Remark. — Dropsy  of  the  Brain  is  apt  to  be  a  collection  of 
the  fluid  in  the  ventricles ;  it  may  be  outside  the  Brain,  or  it  may  be  hi 
both  places.  If  outside  the  Brain,  it  can  be  reached  by  tapping  through 
the  skull,  which  is  a  simple  operation. 

668.  WHITE  FIBRES  (commissures)  EXTEND  between 
the  cerebri,  cerebelli,  and  other  ganglia,  and  between 
different  parts  of  all  the  ganglia,  by  which  communica- 
tion is  established  and  influences  exerted,  the  whole  be- 
ing so  woven  together  that  intellections,  emotions,  sen- 
sations, and  volitions,  can  harmoniously  and  reciprocally 
act  on  each  other,  as  occasion  may  require. 

669.  THE  CEREBRI  are  the  organs  of  the  Intellect, 
but  by  what  method  they  act  is  not  known. 

670.  The  central  ganglia  of  the  brain  are  organs 
through  which  sensations  are  caused,  and   hence  they 
are  called  THE  SENSORIUM.     A  part  of  these  ganglia  are 
probably  concerned  in  producing  emotions,  since  they 
can  be  excited   despite  the  will  by  certain  substances 
swallowed  or  inhaled ;  and  substances  that  excite  emo- 
tions produce  unusual  circulation  of  Blood  about  some 
of  these  ganglia. 

671.  THE  CEREBELLI  are  smoother  at  their  surface 
than  the  cerebri,  and  in  this  respect  are  like  the  central 
ganglia.     Cut  across,  they  present  in  their  centre,  upon 
section  of  either  side,  the  white  tissue  branched  like  a 
tree,  hence  called  tree  of  life  (arbor  vitas). 

672.  THE  USE  OF  THE  CEREBELLI  is  to  harmonize 
the  action  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  as  is  espe- 
cially necessary  in  walking ;  and  by  some  they  are  also 
thought  to  be  the  sensatory  ganglia  of  muscular  sensa- 
tions ;  but  this  is  not  certain,  as  they  may  perform  the 
office  of  influencing  contractions  .without  necessarily  ex- 
citing sensations. 


667.  Where  is  Cranial  dropsy  ?   668.  How  do  -  ?    669.  What  are  -  ?  670.  What 
is  —  ?     671.  Describe  — .    672.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF   TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    277 

Spinal  Ganglia. 

673.  THE  SPINAL  COED  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  an  exter- 
nal sheath,  the  surface  of  which  is  a  continuation  of  the 
arachnoid  of  the  under  surface  of  the  Brain.     Adjoin- 
ing this  is  found  a  continuation  of  the  subarachnoidean 
areolar  texture,  filled  with  the  same  fluid  as  that  of  the 
Brain,  next  to  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  pia  mater. 
In  other  words,  the  spinal  cord  is  but  a  prolongation  of 
the  lower  portion  of  the  Brain,  which  is  an  enlargement 
of  the  cord. 

674.  THE  SPINAL  CORD  is  CONSTRUCTED  INTERNALLY 
of  white  tissue  enclosing  gray,  the  latter,  when  cut  across, 
showing  the  form  of  a  quarter  moon,  the  horns  being 
near  the  surface  of  the  cord,  where  the  nerves  enter  or 
leave,  thus  dividing  the  cord  on  each   side  into  three 
parts,  called  the  front,  middle,  and  back  columns,  while 
two  grooves  at  the  centre  of  the  front  and  back  face  of 
the  cord  indicate  the  line  of  its  division  into  its  right  and 
left  halves,  or  right  and  left  cords. 

675.  THE  GRAY  CENTRAL  PART  OF  THE  CORD  CON- 
TAINS millions  of  cells,  with  some  of  which  only  the 
white  fibres  that  enter  and  leave  are  connected :  other 
cells  are  connected  with  white  fibres  that  enter  and 
leave,  and  also  with  those  extending  up  to  the  cranial 
ganglia,  while  others  again  are  connected  with  fibres 
that  either  enter  or  leave,  and  with  those  that  extend  to 
other  cells  in  the  cord  or  in  the  Brains. 

676.  THE  WHITE  PART  OP  THE  CORD  contains  some 
fibres  that  extend  to  or  from  the  Brain,  and  some  that 
extend  to  cells  in  the  cord,  and  some  that  extend  be- 
tween cells  of  the  cord. 

677.  ON  ALL  THE  FIBRES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  BACK 

PART  OF  THE  CORD  there  is  found,  a  short  distance  from 
the  cord,  but  within  the  canal,  a  small  quantity  of  gray 


673.  How  —  ?    674.  How  —  ?     675.  What  does  —  ?    676.   What  said  of  —  ? 
677.  What  found-? 


278  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

tissue,  called  the  ganglion  of  the  posterior  or  sensatory 
root  of  the  nerve.  On  all  the  sensatory  nerves  or  sensa- 
tory parts  of  nerves  extending  from  the  cranium,  a  sim- 
ilar ganglion  is  found.  Hence,  these  ganglia  are  thought 
essential  to  sensation,  but  in  what  manner  is  not  known : 
some  of  the  nerves  terminate  in  them. 

678.  THE  USES  OP  THE  SPINAL  CORD  are  twofold: 
1st,  it  is  a  large  bundle  of  nerves,  connecting  the  Brain 
and  various  other  parts  of  the  body ;  and  2d,  it  is  a  chain 
of  nervous  centres,  causing  action  in  the  various  parts 
with  which  it  has  connection. 

679.  Illus. — IF  THE  SPINAL  CORD  OF  A  FROG  IS  CUT  ABOVE  HIS   HIPS, 

and  his  hind-foot  is  pricked,  it  will  be  immediately  moved ,  but  no  pain 
is  caused,  since  he  makes  no  effort  to  remove  his  body,  as  he  will  do  if 
his  fore-foot  is  pricked.  Accidents  have  injured  the  spinal  cord  hi  cases 
where,  if  a  feather  was  drawn  across  the  sole  of  the  foot,  motion  would 
be  caused ;  yet  it  was  not  by  the  will  of  the  patient,  for  he  felt  neither 
the  feather  nor  the  motion.  The  feather  through  the  nerves  affected  the 
centres  hi  the  cord,  and  they  sent  down  an  influence  that  caused  the 
muscles  to  contract. 


Sympathetic  Ganglia. 

680.  THE  SYMPATHETIC  GANGLIA  DIFFER  FROM  THE 
CRANIO-SPINAL  in  these  respects :  tKe  latter  are  protected 
within  a  bony  case,  while  the  former  aje  not ;  they  are 
very  numerous,  but  all  very  small,  while  some  of  those 
of  the  Cranium  are  very  massive. 

681.  THE    SYMPATHETIC    GANGLIA,  ,  WITH    THEIE 
NERVES,  FORM  a  double  chain  on  each  side  of  the  spinal 
column,  extending,  in  fact,  from  the  head  to  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  coxcyx.     Several  are  found  in  the  head,  three 
in  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  one  near  each  exit  of  the 
nerves  from  the  remaining  length  of  the  spinal  column. 

682.  THE    SYMPATHETIC    GANGLIA    CONNECT    with 
each  other,  and  with  the  spinal  and  cranial  nerves ;  they 


678.  What  are  —  ?    679.  Describe  the  effect  — .    680.  How  do  —  ?    681.  What 
do  —  ?    682.  With  what  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO    ORGANS.    279 
FIG.  192.  FIG.  193. 

A\W:ff'X 


Fig.  192  represents  a  side  view  of  the  face,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the 
abdomen,  a,  section  of  the  ribs,  being  made  at  the  point  of  their  greatest 
curvature  backward ;  the  left  lung,  Z,  and  stomach  being  cut  open  and 
drawn  forward  and  to  the  right  to  exhibit  d,  d,  sympathetic  ganglia  and 
nerve,  the  divisions  of  b,  pneumo-gastric,  or  tenth  nerve,  and  the  plexuses 
they  form ;  c,  facial  nerve. 

Fig.  193,  the  brain  and  nerves,  with  ganglia  on  their  posterior  roots. 


280  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

also,  commencing  with  those  of  the  neck,  give  out  nerves 
that  lead  from  each  side  downward  and  toward  the  cen- 
tre till,  meeting,  or  nearly  meeting,  they  form  inextrica- 
ble plexuses,  associated  with  ganglia,  called  the  central 
ganglia,  and  having  specific  names,  cardiac,  solar,  &c. 

683.  FROM   THE   CENTRAL   GANGLIA   and   plexuses, 
nerves  extend  in  great  numbers,  especially  following  the 
course  of  the  large  arteries  to  the  organs  of  the  trunk, 
and,  as  it  is  thought,  extending  with  the  arteries  into  all 
parts  of  the  body. 

684.  It  CAN  NOW   READILY   BE   COMPREHENDED   that 

with  so  many  nervous  centres,  associated  by  millions  of 
fibres  with  all  parts  of  the  body,  all  the  combinations 
and  sequences  of  action  that  can  be  desirable,  are  pro- 
duceable;  that  action  without  and  with  sensation  can 
be  provided  for ;  and  that  the  body  isj  to  a  degree,  a  self- 
regulating  and  also  superintended  machine,  so  arranged 
that  a  cause  acting  on  one  part  may,  through  a  common 
centre,  affect  a  very  distant  part,  which  again  may  exert 
influences  upon  half  a  dozen  parts,  all  of  which  may 
concentrate  their  influences  on  the  first  part,  or  still 
other  intervening  steps  may  be  necessary. 

685.  Illus. — A  PARTICLE  OP  DUST  is  INHALED,  and  proves  annoying 
by  influence  through  a  sensatory  nerve ;  but  that  is  not  sufficient  for  its 
removal.  Another  centre  is  at  the  same  time  acted  upon,  and  influences 
from  it  gush  down  upon  the  muscles  of  inspiration,  contracting  them, 
succeeded  by  influences  closing  the  mouth  and  windpipe,  which  acts  ex- 
ert their  influence,  and  the  expiratory  muscles,contract,  followed  by  the 
sudden  relaxation  of  those  closing  the  windpipe,  and  continued  contrac- 
tion of  those  closing  the  mouth,  and  the  air  is  forced  rapidly  through 
the  nose,  sweeping  away  the  obnoxious  particles.  At  the  same  time 
other  influences  or  branches  of  the  same  influence  are  exerted  upon  the 
gland  that  supplies  the  tear-fluid,  which  it  pours  copiously  over  the  eye. 
The  fluid,  coursing  rapidly  to  the  inner  angle,  finds  its  way  down  the  ducts 
into  the  nose  and  helps  wash  away  the  obnoxious  matter.  Thus  horse- 
radish, mustard,  and  other  volatile,  irritating  substances^  act  on  the  lining 
of  the  back  part  of  the  nose,  and  produce  a  corresponding  series  of  effects. 


Describe  Fig.  192.    Fig.  193.    688.  How  do  nerves  extend—?    684  What  -f 
685.  Describe  effect  of—. 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    281 

SECTION  V. 

Organs  of  Sense. 

686.  Remark. — AFTER  A  DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  GANGLIA,  IT  is  NAT- 
URAL TO  TAKE  UP  a  description  of  those  organs  by  which  the  ganglia  are 
acted  upon  or  excited  to  action. 

687.  THE  ORGANS  OF  SENSE  ARE,  FIGURATIVELY  in 
case  of  all  of  them,  and  literally  in  case  of  touch,  the 
hands  by  which  the  ganglia  reach  out  and  grasp  the 
various  properties  of  the  objects  constituting  the  exter- 
nal world,  and  obtain  the  elementary  knowledge  needed 
by  the  mind  to  work  out  the  facts  of  the  physical  con- 
stitution of  the  universe. 

688.  The  organ  of  sense  is  NOT  FIRST  FORMED,  and 
afterward  its  nerve,  and  then  its  ganglion,  but  inverse- 
ly ;  the  ganglion  is  FORMED  FIRST,  and  reaches  out  an 
appropriate  nerve,  and  the  organ  of  sense  is  found  at  its 
extremity. 

689.  Remark. — IN  CASE  OP  DEFORMITIES,  parts  will  be  defective  in 
the  order  stated :  first,,  the  organ  of  sense ;  secondly,  the  nerve  ;  and  -last- 
ly, the  ganglion.     If  it  is  wanting,  the  other  two  will  surely  be. 

690.  Remark. — The  simplest  of  the  organs  of  sense  should  be  first 
described,  particularly  as  it  will  be  found  an  element  hi  some  of  the 
compound  organs  of  sense. 

Muscles  as  Organs  of  Sense. 

691.  THE  MUSCLES  ARE  PRIMARILY  organs  for  the 
production  of  mechanical  motion,  without  reference  to 
the  direct  acquisition  of  knowledge.  But  their  action 
in  that  respect  could  not  be  regulated  without  the  degree 
of  every  contraction  was  instantly  known  by  the  -mind ; 
hence  it  is  necessary  that  every  voluntary  contraction  be 
attended  by  a  corresponding  sensation. 

692.  Illus. — What  clumsy  work  people  would  make  in  their  speech 
unless  every  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  speech,  after  being  ordered, 

686.  What  —  ?     687.  What  are  —  ?     688.  What—?      689.   What  true  —  ? 
691.  What  —  ?    692.  What  necessary  to  speech  ? 


282  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

and  while  taking  place,  was  reported  to  the  mind  !  It  would  be  neces- 
sary to  wait  till  the  voice  was  heard  before  it  would  be  known  whether 
the  required  contraction  had  exactly  taken  place. 

693.  THE  ACTION  OF  THE  MUSCLES  is  so  IMPORTANT 
to  their  health,  and  that  of  all  parts  of  the  body,  it  is 
ALSO  NECESSARY  that  they  should  produce  sensations  of 
discomfort  when  improperly  used,  either  too  much  or 
too  little,  and  sensations  of  comfort  when  they  are  prop- 
erly used  or  allowed  their  required  rest. 

694.  The  Muscles  are  doubtless,  or  at  least  can  be, 
greater  SOURCES   OF  COMFORT  OR  DISCOMFORT  than  all 
other  parts  of  the  body  taken  together. 

695.  But  THE   MUSCLES,  AS  ESPECIAL  ORGANS    OF 
SENSE   for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  are  also  of 
more  advantage  than  all  the  other  organs  collectively. 

696.  Remark. — In  fact,  it  will  be  seen  that  two  of  the  most  impor- 
tant portions  of  knowledge  obtained  through  the  eye  and  ear  are  depend- 
ent on  sensations  excited  by  muscles  used  hi  their  construction, 

697.  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE  is  USED  in  ascertaining 
the  densities  of  objects,  their  force,  configuration,  size, 
and  the  adhesiveness  of  surfaces,  to  measure  distances, 
angles,  etc. 

698.  Him. — The  muscles  of  the  arm  will  point  out  the  position 
where  an  amputated  part  of  the  body  would  be,  if  it  had  remained, 
as  accurately  as  the  most  exact  measurement  would  do. 

699.  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE  COMES  INTO  USE  the  ear- 
liest of  the  senses,  and  fades  the  earliest:  the  knowledge 
it  gives  us  being  our  first  requirement,  and  most  rudi- 
mentary, its  utility  is  soonest  completed. 

700.  HOW  THE  NERVES  OF  SENSE   COMMENCE  IN  THE 

MUSCLES  is  not  yet  a  settled  question,  nor  how  they  are 
acted  upon.  Whether  the  simple  pressure  of  the  con- 
tracting muscular  fibre  upon  the  nerve-fibre  is  all  that  is 
necessary,  or  whether  the  commencement  of  the  nerve- 
fibre  is  furnished  with  a  corpuscle  that  is  acted  upon  by 


698   -  what  -?    694.  What  arc  —  ?    695.  What  are  —  ?     697.  How  is  —  ? 
698.  What  can  muscles  of  urin  do  ?    699.  When  does  —  ?    700.  How  do  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES    INTO    ORGANS.    283 

the  contracting  muscular  fibre,  and  then  exerts  an  influ- 
ence through  the  nerve,  is  not  known. 

701.  Remark. — IT  is  NOT  POSITIVELY  CERTAIN  that  there  are  two 
kinds  of  nerves  connecting  between  a  muscle  and  the  centres,  but  it  is 
supposed  there  are,  because  it  does  not  appear  probable  that  the  motor 
influence  can  be  acting  toward  the  muscle,  and  the  sensatory  from  it 
through  the  same  nerve-fibre  at  the  same  time ;  and  if  the  back  roots  of 
the  spinal  nerves  be  cut,  reflex  motion  cannot  be  excited  by  acting  on 
the  muscle.  This  seems  conclusive,  although  all  the  nerve-fibres  in  the 
muscle  appear  alike ;  motory  and  sensatory  cannot  be  distinguished 
there. 

702.  All  that  is  KNOWN  WITH  CERTAINTY  is  that 
every  contraction  and  relaxation  of  any  part  of  even  the 
smallest  fibrilla  of  the  voluntary  muscles  can  instantly 
produce  a  sensation,  and  also  other  exhilarating  or  de- 
pressing effects  upon,  or  through  the  effect  of,  many  nerv- 
ous centres,  waking  the  whole  body  to  life  and  joy,  or 
overwhelming  it  with  gloom  and  misery. 

703.  It  IS  OUR  DUTY  TO  STUDY  AND    OBSERVE    the   ef- 

fects  of  over  and  under  exercising  the  muscles,  the  fatigue, 
exhaustion,  and  dragging  sensations  produced  by  over 
toil,  and  the  discomfort,  unrest,  uneasiness,  and  impul- 
siveness, that  is  caused  by  a  want  of  muscular  exercise. 
A  regularly,  healthily  exercised  boy  is  very  little  inclined 
to  mischief. 

T/ie  SJcin  as  an  Organ  of  Sense. 

704.  Forming  the  surface  of  the  body,  IT  is  NECES- 
SARY  THAT   THE    SKIN   BE   ENDOWED    with   the   power  of 

exciting  sensations.  It  must  be  an  advance  picket-guard, 
to  report  upon  the  presence  of  objects  in  contact  with 
the  body,  and  upon  the  temperatures  to  which  it  is  ex- 
posed, and  must  excite  a  sudden  alarm  if  injured  in  any 
way. 

705.  THE   SKIN   is   CONSTRUCTED   of  three  layers, 

701.  What  is  —  ?    702.  What  is  —  ?    703.  What  is  —  ?    What  said  of  regain* 
exercise  ?    704.  With  what  —  ?    705.  How  is  —  ? 


284  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

cuticle,   basement    membrane,   and   dermis,   sometimes 
called  the  true  skin. 

706.  THE  DEEMIS  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  sinewy  fibres, 
woven  most  densely  near  its  surface  and  quite  loosely 
below,  where,  in  fact,  the  fibres  pass  into  the  form  of 
areolar  tissue,  in  the  areolae  of  which,  and  in  some  of 
the  larger  meshes  of  the  skin,  fat-cells  are  found  more  or 
less  abundantly. 

707.  THE  DEEMIS  is  that  part  of  the  skin  that  is 
termed   leather,  being   tanned   dermis,   the  hair,  cells, 
nerves,  etc.,  being  removed  in  the  process. 

708.  THE  STJEFACE  OF  THE   DEEMIS   is   EAISED  in 
ridges  of  small  points  called  papillae,  in  the  most  sensi- 
tive parts,  as  may  be  seen  at  the  ends  of  the  fingers  and 
elsewhere. 

709.  THE  MESHES  OF  THE  DEEMIS  ABE  OCCUPIED  by 
glands,  lymphatics,  blood-tubes,  a  loop  of  which  extends 
into  every  papilla,  and  nerves  which  terminate  in,  or 
more  properly  commence  in,  nervous  corpuscles  in  the 
papillae. 

FIG.  194. 


Fig.  194  represents  the  capillaries 
near  the  surface  of  the  dermis.  The 
loops  that  are  in  the  papillae  are  easily 
recognized. 


710.  THE   BASEMENT  MEMBEANE  IS  SPEEAD  OVCr  the 

dermis  and  all  its  eminences,  and  from  it  soft  cells  con- 
stantly grow  up,  producing  a  deliciously  soft,  elastic  cush- 
ion to  protect  the  exquisitely  sensitive  nerves  from  too 
great  pressure ;  the  slightest  touch  on  them  exposed  is 
exceedingly  painful. 

711.  THE   THICKNESS    OF   THE   DEEMIS  VAEIES  in  dif- 


706.  How  is  -?    707.  What  is  —  ?    70a  How  is  —  ?    709.  How  are  —  ?    De- 
scribe Fig.  194.    HO.  How  is-?    711.  How  does-? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    285 

ferent  parts  from  a  twenty-fourth  to  a  sixth  of  an  inch ;  the 
basement  is  one  thing  everywhere ;  the  thickness  of  the 
cellular  layer  (cuticle)  varies  very  much,  as  does  the  dry- 
ness  of  its  cells ;  in  some  places,  as  the  palm,  heel,  &c., 
they  become  quite  horny  by  the  time  they  are  at  the 
surface,  while  in  other  places  the  cells  retain  considerable 
of  their  moisture  and  pliability  at  the  very  surface. 

Remark. — CORNS  ARE  PRODUCED  by  pressure  upon  cells  at  some  point, 
by  which  the  fluids  they  contain  are  caused  to  exude,  leaving  them  one 
under  another  mere  horny  scales  matted  together,  pressing  on  the  nerves 
and  even  down  into  the  dermis.  A  sharp-pointed  instrument  can  be  used 
to  take  them  out  without  pain,  as  cutting  the  cuticle  devoid  of  nerves 
cannot  cause  pain ;  and,  if  the  instrument  is  carried  no  deeper  than  the 
corn,  it  cuts  no  nerves.  If  the  pressure  is  not  renewed  the  corns  will  not 
return  ;  if  it  is,  they  will. 

712.  TOUCH  is  the  name  given  to  the  sense,  when 
used  in  a  general  or  passive  manner ;  when  used  inten- 
tionally, and  for  special  purposes,  it  is  CALLED  TACT,  and 
also  implies  some  training  and  acquired  skill. 

713.  TACT  AND  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE  often  work  to- 
gether to  get  knowledge  for  the  mind,  that  neither  alone 
could  well  obtain. 

714.  THE  ORDINARY  SENSATIONS  PRODUCED  THROUGH 
TOUCH  are  neither  particularly  pleasant  or  unpleasant. 
They  may  be  called  neutral,  since  they  are  neither  essen- 
tial nor  injurious  to  our  welfare ;  when  they  are  either,  the 
skin  rouses  itself  and  is  the  cause  of  intense  sensations ; 
entrancing  the  mind  with  pleasure,  as  when  it  receives  a 
refreshing  bath,  or  the  gentle  breeze  of  summer  is  waft- 
ing away  its  accumulating  heat ;  or  irritating  and  vex- 
ing the  soul  most  unpleasantly,  as  when  the  cold,  driz- 
zling, raw  air  chills  it  through ;  in  all  cases  proving  equally 
a  precious  friend  and  worthy  of  being  maintained  in  the 
highest  condition  of  health  and  activity. 

715.  OUR  WELFARE  REQUIRES  that  attention  be  giv- 
en to  provide  seats  that  are  easy,  beds  that  are  comfort- 


Rem.  How  —  ?    712.  What  is  —  ?    718.  What  do  —  ?    714.  What  is  said  of—? 
What  of  the  extraordinary  —  ?    715.  What  does  —  ? 


286  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

able,  apartments  of  a  proper  temperature,  neither  too 
cool  nor  too  warm,  baths  for  the  skin,  brisk  rubbing  to 
circulate  the  blood  freely  through  it,  and  clothing  ap- 
propriate for  all  seasons  and  all  kinds  of  weather ;  that 
we  should  walk  and  ride  and  exercise  in  various  ways  in 
the  open  air,  where  the  skin  can  receive  agreeable  influ- 
ences and  produce  numerous  and  lively  sensations. 

Remark. — The  skin  and  the  care  it  should  receive  will  again  be  a 
proper  subject  for  instruction  when  the  eliminating  organs  are  consid- 
ered. 

The  Mouth  as  an   Organ  of  Sense. 

716.  THE  MOUTH  is  PRIMARILY  an  organ  for  prepar- 
ing the  food  for  the  digestory  action  of  the  stomach,  but 
that  duty  is  changed  into  a  pleasure  by  the  addition  of 
the  nerves  of  taste. 

717.  NERVES  OF  TOUCH  EXTEND  from  every  part  of 
the  mouth  to  the  nervous  centres,  in  the  same  manner 
as  they  do  from  the  skin,  generally ;   they  are  called 
nerves  of  common  sensation. 

718.  THE  NERVES  or  TASTE  COMMENCE  in  the  papil- 
lae, on  the  sides  and  tip  of  the  tongue,  in  those  about  its 
roots,  from  some  of  tkose  in  the  sides  of  the  back  part 
of  the  mouth,  and  from  some  of  those  of  the  soft  palate. 

719.  THE  NERVES  OF  TASTE  OR  TOUCH  MAY  BE  PAR- 
ALYZED without  the  other  being  affected,  or  either  may 
be  in  either  half  only. 

720.  SOME  SUBSTANCES  do  not  have  the  power  of 
affecting  the  nerves  of  taste,  and  are  called  tasteless;  some 
produce  taste  in  some  persons  and  not  in  others ;  some 
produce  slight  effects  on  some  and  strong  taste  in  others. 

721.  Remark.— Whether  substances  produce  the  same  identical 
kind  of  sensation  in  all  persons  who  taste  them  is  uncertain ;  it  is  not 
probable  they  do. 

722.     THAT  SUBSTANCES  MAY  BE  TASTED  they  must  be 


716.  What  is  —  ?    717.  From  what  part  of  the  mouth  do  —  ?    71 8.  Where  do  —  ? 
719.  How  may  — ?    720.  What  effect  on  taste  of  -  ?    722.  What  necessary  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    287 

dissolved  and  act  through  the  cellular  and  basement  lay- 
ers that  cover  the  papillae,  upon  their  tactile  corpuscles, 
in  which  the  nerves  of  taste  commence. 

Remark. — How  they  act,  and  why  one  substance  produces  a  differ- 
ent effect  from  another,  is  not  known. 

723.  THE  TEETH  SEKVE  AN  ADMIRABLE  PURPOSE  for 
grinding  the  substances  to  be  tasted,  and  the  SALIVA  is 
equally  applicable  for  dissolving  them. 

724.  THE  SENSE  OF  TASTE  is  in  some  way  ASSOCI- 
ATED with  that  of  smell,  since  while  the  nose  is  closed 
many  substances  become  tasteless.    The  rationale  of  this 
is  not  understood. 

Remark. — The  value  of  this  sense  will  be  further  illustrated  when  the 
apparatus  is  made  up. 

The  Nose  as  an  Organ  of  Sense. 

725.  THE  NOSE  is  PRIMARILY  for  the  passage  of  air, 
and  nerves  of  common  sensation  extend  from  all  its 
parts,  the  nerves  of  smell  being  superadded  to  certain 

portions. 

FIG.  195. 

Fig.  195  represents  a 
perpendicular  section  of 
the  bones  of  the  nose  a 
little  to  the  right  of  the 
central  partition,  exhibit- 
ing, 14,  the  front  point  of 
the  floor,  and  4,  the  roof  of 
the  nose,  between  them  be- 
ing the  passage  through, 
in  the  outside  of  which  is 
hanging  9,  the  inferior  tur- 
binated  or  spongy  bone, 
slightly  coiled,  as  its  name 
signifies ;  8,  the  middle ;  7, 
the  superior  turbinated  or  spongy  process.  At  3,  a  sinus  or  cavity  in  the 
sphenoid  is  seen  opening  at  10 ;  4  is  the  frontal  sinus,  opening  into  the  up- 
per part  of  the  nasal  cavity;  12  is  the  opening  into  a  sinus  in  the  upper 
jaw-bone  directly  above  the  eye-tooth.  (Other  cavities  not  shown  are  in  the 
roof  of  the  nose,  opening  into  it.) 


723.  For  what  do  —  ?    What  is  the  use  of  the  —  ?    724.  How  is  -  ?    725.  What 
ia  — ?    Describe  Fig.  195. 


288  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

726.  THE  CAVITY  OF  THE  NOSE  is  formed  of  parts  of 
several  bones  complemented  by  cartilages.     A  partition 
extends  through  the  centre,  dividing  it  into  two  cavi- 
ties or  nostrils,  the  central  sides  of  which  are  smooth, 
but  upon  the  outsides  of  each  a  bone  and  two  processes 
(Turbinated)  are  constructed,  that  partially  fill  each  nos- 
tril, and  very  much  increase  the  extent  of  surface  present- 
ed to  the  action  of  air ;  especially  in  some  animals  that 
hunt  their  prey,  in  which  the  bone  is  even  coiled. 

727.  CAVITIES    CALLED   SINUSES,   in   four  different 
bones,  open  into  each  nostril,  as  indicated  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  preceding  figure.     Their  use  is  unknown. 
They  are  lined  by  a  delicate  membrane  that  sometimes 
pours  out  a  watery  fluid,  which,  when  the  head  is  bent 
forward,  will  be  freely  discharged  into  the  nose.     Some- 
times the  fluid  is,  or  will  become,  viscid.    Sometimes  the 
membrane  lining  these   cavities  becomes  inflamed,  as 
when  a  person  has  a  cold  in  the  head,  and  in  other  ways 
proves  troublesome. 

728.  THE  SKIN  LINING  THE  NOSE  is  a  continuation 
of  that  covering  it,  only  thinner,  and  the  cuticular  cells 
are  changed  to  ciliated  epithelial  in  the  lower  part,  and 
to  thin,  pavement-shaped  cells  above,  where  the  nerves 
of  smell  are  found.     (The  lining  of  the  sinuses  is  continu- 
ous with  that  lining  the  nose.) 

729.  THE  NERVES  OF  SMELL  DESCEND  INTO   EACH 
NOSTRIL  in  two  bundles,  through  the  cribriform  or  sieve- 
like  holes  in  the  roof  of  the  nose,  one  bundle  being  des- 
tined for  the  lining  covering  the  turbinated  processes 
(see  1  in  the  succeeding  figure),  the  other  bundle  extend- 
ing for  about  the  same  distance  down  the  lining  of  the 
partition.     (See  Fig.  196.) 

730.  ODOROUS  PARTICLES  dissolved  in  the  air  and 
floated  or  snuffed  through  the  nostrils,  striking  upon  the 
delicate  surfaces  of  their  upper  walls,  permeate  the  thin 

726.  How  is  -  constructed?     727.  What  said  of  — ?    728.  What  said  of  — ? 
729.  How  do  —  ?    780.  What  effect  produced  by  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OP  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.      289 
FIG.  196. 
3   9 


Fig.  196,  a  section  of  nose  a  little  to  the  left  of  central  partition  ;  2, 
nerve  of  smell ;  2,  9,  8,  7,  4,  nerves  of  common  sensation  ;  5,  6,  motor 
nerves  of  soft  palate ;  3,  speno-palatine  ganglion ;  12,  deep  petrous  con- 
nection between  the  ganglion  and  the  carotid  plexus,  and  thus  with  the 
sympathetic. 

layer  of  cells  that  protects  the  corpuscles  in  which  the 
nerve-fibres  of  smell  commence,  and  some  change  that  is 
wrought  in  them  produces,  as  an  ultimate  result,  a  sen- 
sation of  smell. 

731.  From  the   DIFFERENT   EFFECTS  PRODUCED  BY 
DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES,  as  in  case  of  taste,  their  charac- 
teristics may  be  learned,  and  they  may  be  distinguished. 

732.  MUCH  ENJOYMENT  IS  ALSO  ATTAINABLE  THROUGH 

THE  SENSE  OF  SMELL  by  judicious  treatment.  It  is  the 
province  of  the  sense  of  smell  to  enjoy  the  sweet  odors 
of  flowers,  the  freshness  of  the  cultivated  fields,  and  the 
fragrance  of  the  wildwoods.  Nor  are  the  arts  of  the 
perfumer  to  be  disesteemed.  The  savor  of  preparing 
food  quickens  the  appetite,  heightens  the  pleasure  of 
eating,  and  facilitates  digestion. 

Describe  Fig.  196.    Where  do  the  nerves  of  common  sensation,  2,  9,  8,  7,  4,  ter- 
minate ?  731.  What  said  of  —  ?    732.  How  is  —  ? 
13 


290  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

733.  Inf. — IT  is  OF  GREAT  CONSEQUENCE  to  have  fftod  prepared  in  a 
savory  manner :  many  a  plain  dish  may  thus  be  made  exceedingly  at- 
tractive. 

734.  Inf. — ROOMS  SHOULD  BE  FURNISHED  not  only  with  flowers,  bou- 
quets, and  nosegays,  but,  as  this  name  implies,  they  should  be  fragrant. 
A  party  should  not  be  given  to  gratify  the  sense  of  taste  only  or  chiefly ; 
but  the  other  senses  should  also  be  addressed,  and  flowers,  sweet-scented 
flowers,  should  abound,  as  a  source  of  refined  entertainment. 

%  The  Eye. 

735.  Remark. — THE  EYE  is  USUALLY  THOUGHT  TO  BE  a  complicated 
organ  in  structure  and  action,  because  many  acts  have  been  attributed 
to  it  that  it  does  not  perform,  and  because  it  has  not  been  examined  in 
a  natural  manner.   The  process  of  seeing,  so  far  as  the  eye  is  concerned, 
and  its  structure,  are  very  simple  and  easily  understood,  if  correctly 
examined. 

736.  THE  EYE  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  several  distinct 
classes  of  parts,  each  adapted  to  its  peculiar  purposes, 
that  should  be  distinctly  described. 

737.  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  EYE  MAY  BE  CLASSED,  1st, 
as  the  nervous ;  2d,  as  those  adapted  to  cause  the  light 
to  act  upon  the  nervous  part ;  3d,  as  those  promoting 
the  movements  of  the  eye ;  4th,  as  those  moistening  the 
eye ;  5th,  as  those  adapted  to  protect  the  eye.     Each  of 
these  classes  of  parts  may  be  subdivided. 

Nervous  Structures  of  the  Eye. 

738.  THE  NERVOUS  PARTS  OF  THE  EYE  are  construct- 
ed of  the  dura  mater,  the  pia  mater,  and  the  ganglionic 
structure,  called  the  retina,  which  will  be  best  under- 
stood if  described  in  the  following  manner : 

739.  THE  OPTIC  NERVE,  or  nerve  of  sight,  EXTENDS 
from  its  ganglion  in  the  Brain,  through  an  appropriate 
opening  in  the  skull  at  the  bottom  of  the  eye-socket. 
It  is  formed  externally  of  the  dura  mater  lining  the  skull, 


783.  What  is  -?    784  How  should  —  ?    T85.  What  is  —  ?    T86.  How  is  -? 
187.  How  — ?    788.  —  are  constructed  how  ?    739.  How  does  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    291 

which  forms  a  sinewy  sheath  to  the  millions  of  nervous 
fibres  it  encloses. 

740.  WITHIN  THE  SHEATH  OF  THE  OPTIC  NEEVE  EX- 
ISTS a  very  thin  layer  of  pia  mater,  derived  from  that  of 
the  Brain,  and  WITHIN  THE  PIA  MATER  ARE  the  true 
nervous  fibres,  in  bundles,  having  a  small  quantity  of  sin- 
ewy tissue  wrought  around  and  between  them. 

FIG.  197. 


741.  THE  NERVE  (14,  Fig.  197)  EXTENDS  FORWARD 
an  inch  or  more  into  the  socket,  where  it  "expands  into 
the  form  of  the  larger  part  of  a  sphere,  nearly  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

742.  THE  SHEATH  OF  THE  NERVE  (15,  Fig.  197)  is 
here  thickened  and  made  very  dense  by  the  addition  of 
sinewy  fibres,  and  becomes  (1,  Fig.)  the  white  or  scle- 
rotic (hard)  coat  of  the  eye,  in  the  front  part  of  which  an 
opening  is  left,  through  which  the  colored  part  of  the 
eye  (6)  shows. 

743.  THE  PIA  MATER  OF  THE  NERVE  is  also  thickened 
into  (3,  Fig.  197)  an  innumerable  multitude  of  capillary 
Blood-tubes,  supported  by  a  small  number  of  sinewy 
fibres,  having  in  their  meshes  a  large  number  of  colored 
cells,  intensely  black  at  the  inner  surface,  where  the 


740.  What  —  ?    What  does  Fig.  197  represent  ?    741.  How  does  —  ?    742.  What 
does  —  become  ?    743.  What  does  —  become  ? 


292  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

light  acts  freely  upon  them,  and  being  a  deep  brown  near 
the  sclerotic.  This  part  of  the  eye  is  called  the  choroid 
coat. 

744.  THE  CHOROID  DOES  NOT  REACH  FORWARD  AS  FAR 
AS  THE  SCLEROTIC,  is  loosely  connected  with  it  through- 
out by  Blood-tubes  and  sinewy  fibres,  that  become  more 
dense  at  the  front  part  of  the  choroid,  and  more  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  sclerotic;  thus  forming  the 
ciliary  body  (4),  in  which  the  capillary  vessels  are  found 
in  greatly  diminished  numbers.     (See  1  746.) 

745.  THE  PROPER  NERVOUS  STRUCTURE  OR  RETINA 
OF  THE  EYE  exists  in  five  layers:  1st,  a  layer  of  columnar 
cells  (membrane  of  Jacobi),  resting  against  the  choroid ; 
2d,  a  granular  layer  (like  that  of  the  ganglia)  ;  within 
that  is,  3d,  a  layer  of  caudate  cells,  connected  with,  4th, 
the  nervous  fibres,  covered  with,  5th,  a  layer  of  struc- 
tureless membrane,  like  basement  membrane. 

746.  THE  RETINA  does  not  EXTEND  QUITE  AS  FAR 
AS  THE  CHOROID,  the  capillary  vessels  of  which  diminish 
rapidly  in  number  as  soon  as  no  longer  necessary  in 
large  numbers  to  furnish  nutriment  to  the  retina. 

747.  THE  NERVOUS  FIBRES  OF  THE  RETINA  are  mil- 
lions in  number,  some  terminating  almost  the  instant 
they  enter  the  eye,  in  caudate  cells  near  the  entrance, 
others  extending  to  the  last  row  of  cells  at  the  front 
border  of  the  retina. 

748.  Remark. — THE  NERTE-FIBRES  TURN  BACK  to  connect  with  the 
cells  forming  the  layer  next  behind  the  fibre-layer.  They  do  not  present 
their  points  toward  the  concavity  of  the  eye,  as  for  certain  reasons  has 
been  represented  hi  several  of  the  figures  illustrating  the  eye,  nor  do 
they  terminate  in  points,  but  in  or  at  the  caudate  cells,  with  which  they 
are  continuous. 

749.  ALL  THE  LAYERS  OF  THE  RETINA  are  transpar- 
ent, as  can  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the  pupil  of 
the  eye  appears  black,  owing  to  our  looking  through  the 


744.  What  results  since  —  ?    745.  What  said  of  —  ?    746.  Does  —  f    747.  What 
Wid  of  —  ?    748.  Why  do  —  ?    749.  What  true  of  —  ?    Effect  of  choroid. 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    293 

pupil  quite  back  to  the  black  choroid.  Hence,  light  cap 
readily  pass  through  the  retina  to  the  choroid,  and  all 
that  reaches  it  is  neutralized,  absorbed,  killed,  and  there- 
fore none  is  reflected ;  and  that  which  affects  the  nervous 
structure,  must  do  it  while  passing  through  the  structure 
or  by  the  reaction  of  the  choroid  upon  it. 

750.  Inf. — There  must  be  A  SPOT  IN  THE  EYE  WHERE  THE  FIBRES 
ENTER,  where  cells  and  other  parts  of  the  retina,  except  fibres,  do  not 
exist ;  this  spot  is  devoid  of  sight,  showing  that  the  fibres  alone  are  not 
sufficient  for  sight,  and  that  cells  are  necessary. 


751.  Ill-us. — Close  the  left  eye,  and  with  the  right  one  look  at  the 
left-hand  spot,  at  ordinary  reading  distance;  the  right-hand  spot  will 
not  be  seen  if  the  distance  is  correct ;  if  seen,  move  the  book  nearer  or 
farther,  and  the  spot  will  vanish,  and  reappear  at  a  greater  or  less  dis- 
tance.    The  reason  is,  that  the  light  from  the  spot  falls  on  the  blind 
point  in  the  eye.     Close  the  right  eye,  and,  with  the  left  look  at  the 
right-hand  spot,  and  the  same  effect  will  be  produced. 

752.  jRemark. — THE  NERVOUS  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EYE,  the  protecting 
sclerotic,  the  supplying  choroid,  and  the  visual  retina  of  five  layers,  are 
now  complete  for  the  reception  of  light. 

Remark.— THE  RETINA  APPEARS  TO  BE  merely  a  ganglion  of  peculiar 
form,  adapted  to  receive  the  influence  of  light. 


Nature  of  Light. 

753.  There  are  THREE  PRIMARY  KINDS  or  LIGHT, 
red,  yellow,  and  blue,  by  the  proper  proportional  mix- 
ture of  which  all  shades  of  all  colors  can  be  produced. 
(PL  8.) 

754.  Illus.  —  Three  parts  red  and  five  yellow,  produce  Orange,  eight 
parts  ;  three  red  and  eight  blue,  produce  Purple,  eleven  parts  ;  Jive  yel- 
low and  eight  blue,  produce  Green,  thirteen  parts  ;  while  three  red,  five 
yellow,  and  eight  blue,  produce  White,  sixteen  parts.  These  parts,  colors, 
and  proportions,  are  the  natural  ones,  those  of  the  rainbow,  pure  and 


750.  What  said  of—?    751.  Describe  Illns.  with  spots?    T52.  What  said  of  —  ? 
What  does  —  ?    753.  What  said  of  —  ?    754.  Illussrate  proportions  of  color. 


294  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

most  beautiful  Black  is  a  sensation  produced  when  no  light  is  acting 
on  the  organ  of  sight.  It  is  not,  however,  a  negative,  but  a  positive 
sensation. 

755.  SOME  OBJECTS  give  off,  others  transmit,  and 
others  reflect,  one  or  two,  or  all  kinds  of  light,  while 
some  do  neither. 

756.  Illus. — THE  SUN  is  the  only  source  of  all  kinds  of  light  hi 
perfect  proportions.  Many  objects,  candles,  etc.,  give  off  all  kinds,  but 
not  in  perfect  proportions.  Some  give  off  but  one  or  two  varieties. 
Glass  transmits  all  kinds  well,  but  the  front  parts  of  the  eye  most  per- 
fectly. Some  objects  transmit  one  or  two,  and  not  more.  Looking- 
glass,  a  sheet  of  water,  polished  surfaces,  etc.,  reflect  all  kinds.  All 
objects,  except  "good  reflectors,"  and  black,  reflect  some  kinds,  but  not 
others.  Grass  reflects  blue  and  yellow ;  blood  reflects  red  chiefly. 

757.  Those  objects  that  give  off,  transmit,  or  reflect 
any  kind  or  kinds  of  light,  are  correspondingly  CALLED 
WHITE,  BED,  GREEN,  ETC.,  OBJECTS.     That  an  object  may 
appear  black,  it  is  only  necessary  that  it  should  neither 
give  off,  transmit,  nor  reflect  any  light.     (See  Figs.  10  to 
17,  PI.  8.) 

758.  OBJECTS  THAT  PRODUCE  OR  REFLECT  LIGHT,  EX- 
CEPT GOOD  REFLECTORS,  throw  it  off  in  all  directions  in 
straight  lines. 

759.  GOOD    REFLECTORS    AND    THOSE    OBJECTS    THAT 

TRANSMIT  LIGHT,  throw  the  light  only  in  certain  direc- 
tions, depending  upon  their  form,  their  density,  and  the 
direction  in  which  light  has  fallen  upon  them. 

760.  Illus. — A  SUN-GLASS  (convex  lens),  properly  exposed  to  the 
sunlight,  will  bend  (refract)  the  light  as  it  enters,  and  again,  as  it  leaves, 
in  such  a  manner  that  all  which  enters  will  be  brought,  just  beyond  the 
lens,  to  a  single,  very  bright  point,  called  a  focus. 

761.       As  LIGHT  COMING  FROM  TWO  DIFFERENT  POINTS 

to  the  lens  must  come  from  different  directions,  the  lens 
must  bend  them  to  different  foci;  and  every  point  which 
can  throw  light  upon  the  lens  will  be  represented  by  a 
focus  on  the  other  side  of  the  lens. 


755.  What  said  of  —  ?    756.  What  said  of  —  ?    757.  What  are  —  ?    758.  What 
said  of  —  ?    759.  What  said  of  —  ?    700.  What  said  of  —  ?    761.  What  said  of  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    295 

762.  Illus. — If  TWO  LIGHTED  CANDLES  are  placed  at  a  little  distance 
apart,  and  a  lens  before  them,  the  light  from  them,  striking  on  the  lens, 
will  be  reflected  to  two  foci,  and  if  a  hundred  lighted  candles  were  sim- 
ilarly placed  there  would  be  a  hundred  foci. 

763.  Remark. — A  CANDLE,  though  the  best,  is  NOT  A  FAIR  ILLUSTRA- 
TION, since  its  flame  is  composed  of  millions  of  points,  from  each  of 
which  light  passes  to  the  lens,  through  which  millions  of  foci  are  formed 
so  near  together  as  to  cause  the  points  of  the  flame  to  appear  contiguous ; 
yet  each  focus  is  independent  in  its  cause  and  all  its  conditions. 

764.      IT  IS  THEREFORE  POSSIBLE  FOR  THE  EYE  TO   BE 

FURNISHED  WITH  transparent  media,  by  passing  through 
which  the  light  thrown  into  the  eye  from  any  minute 
point  will  be  gathered  to  a  corresponding  focus. 

765.  Remark. — THESE  POINTS,  FROM  WHICH  LIGHT  COMES  TO  THE  EYE, 
and  which  are  the  true  objects  of  vision,  are  the  minutest  distinguishable, 
and  will  be  called  visual  points,  or  visual  objects.  They  are  to  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  general  objects  that,  to  be  sure,  may  be,  single 
visual  points,  but  are  usually  composed  of  myriads  of  them.  A  tree,  a 
limb,  a  twig,  a  leaf,  or  a  spot  upon  it,  is  called,  in  general  terms,  an  ob- 
ject. Again,  visual  points,  examined  under  the  microscope,  are  found  to 
be  composed  of  still  smaller  points,  that  can  thus  be  distinguished. 
Still  again,  some  eyes  appreciate  points  smaller  than  those  seen  through 
other  eyes,  for  some  can  see  blue  and  yellow  where  others  see  green : 
some  painters  will  be  found  to  declare  those  colors  well  mixed,  when 
others  will  see  them  streaked,  and  require  that  they  be  still  more  inti- 
mately mixed  before  they  will  allow  that  a  good  green  has  been  pro- 
duced. We  are  now  prepared  to  describe 

The  Media  of  the  Eye. 

766.  THE  MEDIA  OF  THE  EYE  are  four :  the  Cornea, 
the  Aqueous,  Humor,   the    Lens,  and  the  Vitreous  Hu- 
mor. 

767.  THE  FR,ONT  OF  THE  EYE  is  CLOSED  by  a  trans- 
parent window,  2,  called  the  cornea  (horny  part,  though 
not  composed  of  horny  matter).     It  occupies  about  one 
fifth  of  the  sphere,  is  more  convex  than  the  sclerotic,  or 
is  like  a  section  of  a  smaller  sphere  inserted  in  a  larger 

762.  What  said  of  —  ?    T63.  Why  —  ?    764.  What  is  —  ?    765.  What  said  of  —  ? 
766.  What  said  of  —  ?    767.  How  is  -? 


296  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

one.  The  edge  is  bevelled,  to  fit  the  sclerotic,  though 
they  are  continuous,  and  the  cornea  cannot  be  removed 
without  section. 

768.  THE  CORNEA  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  sinewy  fibres, 
arranged  in  many  layers,  so  as  to  be  perfectly  transpar- 
ent, devoid  of  blood-vessels,  but  containing  many  cavi- 
ties, wrought  like  the  lacunae  in  the  bones,  that  the  white 
nutriment  of  the  blood  may  reach  all  parts.     There  is  a 
canal  around  its  edge,  lined,  and  serving  as  a  vein. 

769.  THE  CORNEA   is   COVERED   with   the   delicate 
serous  membrane  lining  the  lids,  which  upon  the  eye 
becomes  very  thin  and  transparent,  its  surface-cells  being 
scale-like  or  squainous. 

770.  THE  CORNEA  is  LINED  with  an  exquisitely  deli- 
cate serous  membrane,  that  also  covers  the  front  surface 
of  the  iris,  or  colored  part  of  the  eye. 

771.  BACK  OP  THE  CORNEA  is  a  space  lined  with 
serous  membrane,  just  described,  divided  in  two  cham- 
bers, the  anterior,  9,  and  posterior,  10,  by  a  partial  mus- 
cular partition,  6,  surrounding  an  opening,  7,  the  pupil. 
Both  chambers  in  common  are  filled  with  a  fluid,  the  aque- 
ous (watery)  humor,  that  is  the  second  medium  of  the  eye. 

772.  THE  IRIS  is  the  colored  part  of  the  eye,  with  a 
round  opening  in  its  centre  through  which  light  passes. 
It  corresponds  to   the  choroid,  as  the  cornea  does  to 
the  sclerotic,  and  the  covering  of  the  back  part  of  it  is 
filled   with  dark  pigment-cells,  which  give  color  to  the 
iris,  according  to  their  own  number  and  the  transpar- 
ency of  that  portion  of  the  iris  in  front  of  them. 

773.  THE  IRIS  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  muscular  fibres, 
some  forming  rings  around  the  pupil,  and,  by  contract- 
ing, lessening  it,  and  some  radiating  from  the  rings, 
and,  by  contracting,  enlarging  the  pupil.     The  muscles 
and  their  action  can  be  seen  by  watching  the  eye  as  a 
light  is  brought  near  it  and  removed. 


T68.  How  — ?    769.  How  ts  — ?    770.  How  Is  —  ?    771.  What  is  -  ?    Til.  What 
_v    773.  HOW  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    297 

'774.  THE  USE  OF  THE  IKIS  is  to  admit  more  or  less 
light ;  hence  it  will  be  large  in  a  feeble  and  small  in  a 
bright  light. 

775.  THE  CRYSTALLINE  LENS,  11,  is  the  third  medium 
of  the  eye,  shaped  as  shown,  and  enclosed  in  its  capsule. 

776.  THE  CRYSTALLINE  LENS  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  sin- 
ewy fibres  arranged  in  layers  like  coats  of  an  onion,  and 
also  in  several  sections.    It  is  very  beautiful ;  no  diamond 
of  the  choicest  water  equals  its  transparency ;  and  could 
it  be  taken  from  the  eye  and  consolidated  with  all  its 
primitive  beauty,  no  gem  from  Golconda's  mines  would 
equal  its  price. 

777.  THE  FOURTH  MEDIUM  OF  THE  EYE,  13,  the  vit- 
reous (glassy)   humor,  fills  all  the  back  part  of  the  eye 
between  the  lens  and  the  retina. 

778.  THE  VITREOUS  HUMOK  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  the 
hyaloid   (glass-like,  from   its  transparency,)  membrane, 
that  entirely  encloses  the  vitreous,  lying  against  the  re- 
tina;  it  intersects  the  vitreous,   dividing  it  into  small 
spaces  filled  with  a  watery  fluid.     Through  the  centre 
the  central  artery,  1 7,  extends  to  the  capsule  of  the  lens. 
The  artery,  as  shown,  is  enclosed  by  the  hyaloid. 

779.  THE   FRONT   SURFACE   OF  THE  VITREOUS  sur- 
rounding the  crystalline  is  indented;  the  indentations,  60 
or  70  in  number,  receiving  folds  of  a  membrane,  called 
the  ciliary  processes,  triangular  in  form,  that  with  the 
spaces  between  them  occupy  the  side,  5,  of  the  posterior 
chamber  of  the  eye.     They  are  also  attached  to  the  front 
part  of  the  choroid,  and  to  the  iris  near  its  attachment. 
Their  surfaces  and  the  intervening  surface  of  the  hyaloid 
are  pervaded  by  black  pigment-cells. 

780.  IN   THE    FOLDS    OF  THE  CILIARY  PROCESSES  mUS- 

cular  fibres  are  found,  extending  backward  and  forward, 
which,  by  their  contraction,  will  draw  forward  the  lens, 
and  also  affect  the  densities  of  both  humors  of  the  eye. 

774.  What  is  — ?  775.  What  is  —  ?  776.  How  is  —  ?  777.  What  is  -  ?  778.  How 
is  —  ?    779.  What  said  of  —  ?    780.  What  found  —  ? 

13* 


298  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

781      Inf. — THE  MUSCLES  ix  THE  EYE  are  three  in  number:  the  cir- 
cular and  radiate  of  the  iris,  and  the  ciliary. 

Effect  of  the  Eye  and  Light  upon  each  other. 

782.  THE  USE  OF  THE  MEDIA  OF  THE  EYE  is  to  cause 
the  light  coming  from  different  visual  points  through  the 
pupil  to  be  brought  to  corresponding  points  or  foci  in 
the  retina.     The  cornea  has  the  greatest  effect  on  the 
light,  the  lens  considerable,  the  aqueous  and  vitreous  hu- 
mors but  little. 

783.  THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  LIGHT  BROUGHT  TO  A  FO- 
CUS ix  THE  RETINA  is  to  produce  changes  in  the  cells  act- 
ed upon,  different  in  case  of  different  kinds  of  light ; 
resulting  in  corresponding  sensations,  and  also  in  the 
perception  that  the  light  has  come  from  a  certain  direc- 
tion. 

784.  Ittus.-^Red.  light  causes  a  sensation  of  redness ;  blue  and  yel- 
low acting  together  cause  a  sensation  of  green,  etc.     If  a  point  in  the 
lower  back  part  of  the  eye  is  acted  upon,  it  causes  a  perception  that  the 
light  comes  from  above ;  a  point  in  the  right  side  of  the  retina  causes  a 
perception  of  light  coming  from  the  left,  etc. 

785.  Ulus. IF   ONE  EYE    IS   PRESSED  WITH   THE  FINGER,  the  point  On 

which  the  light  will  be  focused  will  be  changed,  and  the  direction  of  the 
object  from  which  the  light  comes  will  seem  to  change ;  the  object  will 
also  appear  to  move,  and,  if  the  other  eye  is  open,  will  appear  double. 
If  both  eyes  are  pressed  at  the  same  time,  the  object  will  appear  double, 
and  seem  to  move  in  two  directions. 

786.  THE  USES  OF  THE  EYE,  then,  are  to  gather  the 
light  that  from  minute  or  visual  points  comes  into  its 
pupil,  to  corresponding  points  in  the  retina ;  to  excite 
corresponding  sensations  of  color;  and  to  cause  percep- 
tions of  the  directions  of  the  minute  or  visual  points. 
These  are  the  complete  work  of  the  eye,  the  only  data 
furnished  by  it,  and  all  that  are  necessary ;  at  the  same 
time  very  pleasurable  sensations  are  excited  in  connec- 
tion with  the  fulfilment  of  these  offices. 


781.  How  many  —  ?  782.  What  is  -?  788.  What  is  —  ?  781  Illus.    785  Effect 
78S.  What  are— ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    299 

787.  Remark. — A  larger  office  HAS  FREQUENTLY  BEEN  ATTRIBUTED 
TO  THE  EYE  than  it  is  possible  or  desirable  for  it  to  perform,  and  when  an 
attempt  has  been  made  to  explain  what  of  course  was  unexplainable,  it 
has  been  found  that  the  explanation  itself  must  be  explained.  The  ele- 
ments of  knowledge  gained  through  the  eye  are  few,  very  simple,  yet  com- 
plete, and  quite  sufficient.  The  mind  should  not  be  embarrassed,  when 
studying  the  eye,  with  previous  theories  and  dogmas,  such,  for  example, 
as  that  there  are  images  in  the  eye;  that  they  are  inverted,  etc.  (PI.  8.) 

788.  THE  PERFECTION  OF  SIGHT  DEPENDS  UPON 
having  a  healthy  nervous  structure,  and  upon  having 
the  light  from  each  visual  object  brought  with  the  ut- 
most exactness  to  its  corresponding  visual  point  in  the 
eye. 

789.  Experiment. — IF   TWO    OR   MORE    LIGHTS   ARE  PLACED  IN  A 
STRAIGHT  LINE  before  the  lens,  their  foci  will  not  be  found  in  a  straight, 
but  in  a  curved,  line,  and  the  degree  of  curvature  will  depend  upon  the 
distance  of  the  lights. 

790.  Inf. — THE  RETINA  MUST  HAVE  an  exact  curvature  correspond- 
ing to  tjie  foci  naturally  produced,  and  the  curvature  must  be  changea- 
ble to  suit  objects  at  different  distances. 

791.  Experiment. — IF  A  LIGHT  is  HELD  BEFORE  A  CONVEX  LENS,  AND 
ITS  FOCUS  OBSERVED,  it  will  be  found  to  vary  in  its  distance  from  the  lens, 
either  by  the  motion  of  the  light  toward  or  from  the  lens,  or  by  the 
movement  of  the  lens  toward  or  from  the  light.     If  the  lens  be  ex- 
changed for  one  more  or  less  convex,  the  distance  of  the  focus  will  also 
be  correspondingly  changed. 

792.  Experiment. — But  IF  THE  LENS  is  MOVED  IN  THE  SAME  RATIO  AS 
THE  LIGHT,  the  focus  will  be  at  the  same  point ;  or  if  the  screen  or  object 
on  which  the  focus  is  received  is  moved  correspondingly  with  the  light, 
the  focus  will  of  course  fall  upon  it ;  or  if  both  the  screen  and  lens  be 
moved  according  to  the  needed  adjustment,  the  combined  effect  will  pre- 
serve the  focus  at  the  same  point  on  the  screen. 

793.  LIGHT  FROM  DISTANT  AND  FROM  NEAR  OBJECTS 
cannot  have  its  focus  at  the  same  point  of  the  retina  in 
the  same  eye  without  being  changed  in  some  respects. 

794.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  CILIARY  PROCESSES  are 
thought  to  be  the  means  of  regulating  the  position  of 
the  lens  and  the  conditions  of  the  humors   in  such  a 


7S7.  What  — ?     788.  —what?    789.  What  —  ?    790.  —what?    791.  What  —  ? 
792.  What  —  ?    793.  What  said  of  —  ?    794  What  is  the  use  of  —  ? 


300  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

manner,  that  the  light  from    objects  within  reasonable 
distance  shall  reach  a  focus  at  the  retina. 

795.  Remark. — THE  CURVATURE  OF  THE  RETINA  certainly,  and  per- 
haps also  its  distance  from  the  lens,  is  affected  by  the  external  muscles 
of  the  eye,  yet  to  be  described. 

796.  THE  EYE  CHANGES,  WHEN  PERFECT,  from  that 
of  short  to  that  of  long  sight  without  effort,  but  in  long- 
sighted persons  it  cannot  be  changed  to  short-sight,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  short-sighted  it  cannot  be  changed  to 
long  sight. 

797.  Remark. — THE  WORDS  SHORT-SIGHTED  AND  LONG-SIGHTED  do 
not  convey  a  correct  idea,  for"  neither  is  anything  more  than  a  perfect 
eye,  but  fails  in  being  something  less.     The  short-sighted  is  no  more  so 
than  any  perfect  eye,  but  is  not  long-sighted. 

798.  Remark. — It  is,  however,  seldom  that  LONG  or  SHORT-SIGHTED 
PERSONS  ARE  RESTRICTED  to  a  single  distance,  their  eyes  nearly  always 
having  some  power  of  adaptation,  but  not  sufficient  for  perfect  sight. 

799.  »  Remark. — In  eyes  called  good  there  is  A  GREAT  DIFFERENCE 
IN  THE  DEGREE  OF  ADAPTATION  :  one  person  can  see  at  a  few  inches'  or  at 
miles'  distance,  while  another  has  a  more  restricted  range.    All  eyes  have 
their  limit,  and  those  only  in  case  of  which  it  is  inconvenient  are  noticed. 

FIG.  198. 

800.      IN  THE   CASE  OF 

I  THE  LONG-SIGHTED  at  ordi- 
nary distances  for  reading, 
|  the  light  from  A,  Fig.  1 98,' 
is  not  brought  to  a  focus  at 
a,  as  it  would  be  in  a  per- 
fect eye,  but  spreads  over 
the  surface  from  b  to  c,  on  account  of  which  A  will  seem 
to  occupy  all  the  space  from  B  to  C,  since,  from  the  ne- 
cessary constitution  and  action  of  the  eye,  the  light  act- 
ing on  b  will  appear  to  come  from  B,  whether  it  does  or 
not,  and  the  light  acting  at  c  will  appear  to  come  from 
(7,  and  the  light  acting  on  all  the  visual  points  between 
b  and  c  will  appear  to  come  from  an  equally  numerous 
series  of  objects  between  B  and  C. 


795.  What  sai.l  of  -?    796.  How  does  -?    797.  What  said  of  —  ?    799.  How 
arc  —  ?    799.  Is  there  —  ?    800.  What  the  condition  —  » 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    301 

801.  IN  THE  CASE  OP  THE  SHORT-SIGHTED,  at  ordinary 
distances  the  light  is  refracted  too  much,  and  reaches  a 
focus  before  it  reaches  the  retina,  as  in  Fig.  4,  PI.  8. 
But  as  there  is  nothing  to  check  the  light  it  passes  on, 
spreading  beyond  the  focus,  till  it  reaches  the  retina 
and  acts  over  the  visual  points  from  b  to  c,  and  the 
same  sensations  and  appearances  will  result  as  in  the 
case  of  the  equally  long-sighted. 

802.  Remark. — Figs.  3  and  4,  PL  8,  represent  in  colors  the  same 
ideas,  only  more  fully,  as  the  light  from  three  points  is  represented,  and 
it  is  seen  that  they  overlap  each  other  on  the  retina,  producing  confused 
sensations  of  color  as  well  as  of  direction.     To  a  long  or  short  sighted 
person  a  point  appears  to  occupy  much  space,  and  objects  appear  blend- 
ed, indistinct,  and  of  course  not  in  their  true  colors. 

803.  Experiment. — It  is  found  that  the  light  passing  through  the 
outer  part  of  a  lens  is  not  brought  exactly  to  the  same  focus  as  that 
passing  through  the  centre. 

804.  ANOTHER  USE  OF  THE  IRIS  is  to  cover  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  lens  and  also  shut  out  light  coming 
through  the  circumference  of  the  cornea. 

805.  It  is  also  found  that  some  colors  are  not  bent  by 
the  same  medium  quite  as  much  as  others,  and  that  by 
putting  together  SEVERAL  MEDIA,  each  operating  differ- 
ently on  different  kinds  of  light,  the  evil  is  nearly  cor- 
rected, and  in  the  eye  most  effectually. 

806.  Remark. — As  the  eye,  in  one  position,'can  take  in  but  a  very 
limited  range  of  vision,  it  is  important  that  it  be  moveable  to  a  very 
large  extent. 

Parts  moving  the  Eye. 

807.  AROUND  THE  EYE  a  deep,  protective,  and  other- 
wise useful  socket  has  been  formed  :  narrow  at  its  inner 
extremity,  it  widens  outward  by  being  funnel-shaped. 

808.  Part  of  THE  SPACE  BETWEEN  THE  EYE  AND  ITS 
SOCKET  is  occupied  by  muscles,  blood-tubes,  etc.,  but  it 

801.  What  condition  —  ?    802.  Describe  Figs.  3,  4,  PI.  8.     804.  What  is  —  ? 
805.  What  is  the  effect  of  uniting  —  ?    807.  What  is  —  ?    80S.  What  said  of  —  ? 


302  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

is  chiefly  packed  with  a  firm  fat,  on  and  against  which 
the  eye  rests  and  turns  very  securely. 

FIG.  19a 

809.      SlX  DELICATE 

MUSCLES  commence 
near  the  inner  point  of 
the  socket.  Four,  call- 
ed the  straight  (recti), 
extend,  one  to  each 
side  of  the  eye,  to 
which  they  are  attached,  a  little  back  of  the  cornea. 
The  fifth  (the  superior  oblique)  extends  to  a  loop  in  the 
upper,  inner,  front  part  of  the  socket.  The  round  ten- 
don of  the  muscle,  enveloped  in  a  bursa,  passes  through 
the  loop,  turns  backward  to  one  side,  and  downward 
over  the  eye,  to  be  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  back 
part  of  it  under  the  external  straight  muscle.  The  sixth, 
or  elevator  muscle,  extends  above  the  eye  and  is  inserted 
in  the  upper  eyelid. 

810.  THE  SEVENTH  MUSCLE  OF  THE  SOCKET,  the  sixth 
that  moves  the  eye  (the  inferior  oblique),  is  attached,  by 
one  extremity,  to  the  lower  inner,  part  of  the  socket  near 
the  nose,  and  extending  outward,  backward,  and  upward 
under  the  eye,  is  attached  to  it  near  the  same  point  with 
the  superior  oblique. 

811.  THE  USE  OF  THE  OBLIQUE  MUSCLES  is  to  draw 
the  eye  forward  and  partially  turn  it  on  its  axis. 

812.  THE  USE  OF  THE  STRAIGHT  MUSCLES  is  to  turn 
the  eye,  as  their  direction  signifies,  and  by  excessive  con- 
traction to  roll  the  eye. 

The  Apparatus  for  Moistening  the  Eye. 

813.  THE  MEANS  FOR  MOISTENING  THE  EYE  may  well 
be  called  an  apparatus,  since  several  different  organs  are 


809.  What  said  of —?    810.  Describe  — .    811.  What  is  — ?    812.  What  is  — 
813.  What  is— ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    303 

constructed  to  work  together  harmoniously  for  a  given 
common  result. 

814.  THE   TEAR  (Lachrymal)  APPARATUS   is   CON- 
STRUCTED of  a  gland  to  form  the  tear-fluid,  ducts  to  con- 
duct it  to  the  eye,  and  ducts  to  conduct  away  what  does 
not  evaporate.   The  lids  and  the  Meibomian  glands  might 
also  be  counted  as  necessary  to  distribute  the  fluid  over 
the  eye,  and  also  to  prevent  it  from  running  over  the 
lids. 

815.  THE  LACHRYMAL  GLAND  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  two 
parts  (Plate  4),  the  rounded  and  the  flat,  situated  just 
within  the  socket  above  the  eye,  and  to  the  outside  of 
it.     The  rounded  part  is  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow's  or 
robin's  egg,  the  flat  or  thin  part  being  smaller.     Six  to 
a  dozen  minute  tubes  lead  from  all  parts  of  the  gland, 
within  which  an  immense  number  of  minute  cryptse  or 
pouches  surround  the  tubes,  and  pour  into  them  the 
tear-fluid  secreted  from  the  blood.     The  tubes  or  ducts 
open  at  their  lower  extremity  upon  the  under  surface  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  lid,  and  pour  the  fluid  into  the  eye, 
over  which  it  is  spread  by  the  motion  of  the  lids. 

816.  THE  TISSUES  OF  THE  GLAND  are  the  sinewy  in 
very  small  quantity,  the  secretory  chiefly,  and  the  nerv- 
ous.    The  Blood-tubes  of  the  gland  are  very  large  in 
proportion  to  its  size,   though  not   exceeding   a  large 
knitting-needle   in  diameter:    the  amount  of  fluid  the 
gland  can  secrete  in  a  short  time,  under  strong  mental 
influences,  is  astonishing. 

Remark. — The  only  creature  that  weeps  is  Man.  Other  creatures 
have  tear-glands  for  supplying  fluid  to  moisten  the  eye,  and  in  case  of 
injury  it  sometimes  overflows  and  trickles  down;  but  the  flow  of  tears 
proper,  under  the  influence  of  emotions,  is  only  human. 

817.  TWO  BLACK  POINTS,  TO  BE  SEEN  AT   THE   INNER 

ANGLE  OF  THE  EYE  by  turning  out  the  lids,  are  the  open- 
ings of  two  minute  tubes  that  curve  around  and  connect 


814.  How  is  —  ?    815.  How  is  —  ?    Place  the  finger  over  the  opening  of  tubes 
from  L  duct     816.  What  are  —  ?    817.  What  arc  —  ? 


204 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


with  a  large  one,  called  a  sac,  the  lower  end  of  which 
leads  into  the  lower  part  of  the  nose.     (See  PL  4.) 

818.  It  is  not  unusual  for  A  COLD  transiently  or  per- 
manently to  stop  the  ducts  leading  from  the  eye.  Pressure 
upon  the  upper  part  of  the  sac  will  sometimes  clear  the 
passages  again.  If  they  are  permanently  closed,  a  small 
silver  tube  can  be  inserted,  that  will  draw  the  fluid  off 
from  the  eye  and  prevent  its  overrunning,  and  obviate 
the  attendant  wiping,  that  is  likely  to  injure  the  eye. 
FIG.  200. 


Fig.  200  exhibits  a  magnified  section  of  the  eye.  a,  the  lashes  of  b,  the 
upper,  d,  the  under  lid,  in  the  middle  of  which  the  orbicularis  is  to  be 
seen,  and  in  the  back  part  the  Meibomian  glands  opening  at  the  edges  of 
the  lids  ;  c,  the  upper  and  lower  points  of  the  lining  of  the  inside  of  the 
lids  ;  i,  the  cornea  ;  d,  the  sclerotic  ;  k,  the  choroid  ;  ,;,  its  division  ;  k, 
ciliary  ligaments,  b,  body,  /,  muscle;  m,  iris;  v,  anterior  chamber;  «, 
posterior  chamber;  tt  lens;  o,  retina;  r,  central  artery;  p,  hyaloid;  «, 
vitreous  humor;  e,  muscle  raising  lid;  f,  superior  rectus;  g,  inferior  rec- 
tus  ;  y,  fat. 


818.  What  frequently  the  effort  of  —  ?    What  docs  Fi#.  200  represent?    Class 
the  parts  of  the  eye  represented  under  thrir  proper  heads. 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    305 

819.  THE  FLUID  FURNISHED  TO  THE  EYE  contains  an 
appreciable  quantity  of  salt  to  render  it  transparent. 
When  this  is  not  supplied  the  eye  soon  inflames ;  in  such 
cases,  to  wash  it  frequently  with  a  solution  of  salt  in 
water  will  be  highly  serviceable.     Too  much  salt  in  the 
blood,  and  in  the  tear-fluid,  on  the  other  hand,  tends  to 
inflame  the  eye. 

Protections  of  the  Eyes. 

820.  THE  PROTECTIONS  OF  THE  EYE  are   the   lids, 
the  Meibomian  glands,  the  orbicularis  muscle,  the  lashes 
that  fringe  the  lids,  and  the  eyebrows  that  shed  off  the 
perspiratipn  and  catch  particles  of  dust  that  might  in- 
commode the  eyes. 

821.  Remark. — WHEN  DUST  DOES  ENTER  THE  EYE,  one  of  the  best 
ways  of  removing  it  is  to  draw  the  upper  lid  down  over  the  lower  lid, 
and  let  it  slide  up.  This  experiment  is  almost  always  successful,  and 
particularly  valuable  on  the  cars. 

Review  of  the  Eye. 

822.  A  REVIEW  OF  THE  EYE  SHOWS  that  perfect  vis- 
ion depends  upon  a  very  large  supply  of  Blood  to  its 
nervous  part,  to  sustain  the  great  activity  of  the  retina ; 
upon  a  proper  form  and  density  of  the  Media  of  the  eye; 
and  upon  the  reception  of  a  proper  supply  of  light; 
while  incidentally  the  front  surface  must  be  kept  moist 
and  protected  from  dust. 

823.  THE  EYE  MUST  HAVE  repose,  temporarily  as 
well  as  at  long  intervals. 

824.  Illus. — If  the  eye  be  acted  upon  continuously  by  any  color,  in 
a  short  time  the  object  of  regard  will  begin  to  appear  dark,  on  account 
of  the  exhaustion  of  the  eye,  no  longer  able  to  respond  to  the  light.  If 
then  another  color  be  presented  to  the  eye,  it  will  be  discerned  with 
great  pleasure ;  if  it  be  white,  the  complementary  part  of  it  only  will  be 
effective.  For  example,  if  the  eye  regard  red  till  fatigued,  and  look 
upon  white,  it  will  see  green,  that  is,  the  blue  and  yellow  of  white. 


819.  What  said  of  —  ?    820.  What  are  —  ?    821.  What  to  be  done  —  ?    822.  What 
does  -  ?    823.  What  must  —  ?    824.  Illustrate  the  idea. 


306  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

825.  THE  EYE  is  REPOSED  TEMPORARILY  by  receiving 
different  kinds  of  light  in  succession,  or  if  all  three  kinds 
act  together,  by  not  receiving  any  for  an  instant. 

826.  Inf. — Black  and  white  are  the  best  colors  for  a  reading-book 
(and  black  letters  upon  a  white  ground  are  better  than  white  letters  on 
a  black  ground  would  be),  since  the  retina  that  corresponds  to  black  is 
perfectly  rested,  and  that  acted  upon  by  white  has  the  influence  of  all 
colors  at  once ;  while  any  other  colors  would  give  constant  activity  to 
the  retina.     The  proportion  of  white  and  black  should  be  better  adjust- 
ed in  school-books  than  is  usual,  through  an  incorrect  idea  of  cheapness. 
What  injures  the  eyes  is  never  cheap. 

827.  Inf. — THE  ART  OF  PLEASING  THROUGH  THE  EYE  consists  in  pre- 
senting before  it  a  succession  of  colors,  the  aggregate  of  which  will  be 
white.     The  complexion,   clothing,  adornments,  furniture,  and  every- 
thing colored  must  be  arranged  upon  this  principle. 

828.  Illus. — A  moss  rosebud  pleases,  because  its  red  and  green 
are  in  proper  proportions.     A  Violet  (Viola  tricolor),  five  sixteenths  yel- 
low and  eleven  sixteenths  purple,  will  please,  their  proportions  being 
right.    Blue  is  becoming  to  blondes,  because  in  their  hair  and  complexion 
orange  predominates,  which  with  blue  produces  white. 

829.  THE  RETINA  is  SOMETIMES  BLIND  entirely,  and 
sometimes  to  only  one  or  two  kinds  of  light,  when  it  is 
called  color-blind.     Sometimes  one  eye  is  blind  to  one 
color  and  the  other  to  another. 

830.  THE  AUTHOR  HAS  SEEN  a  person  who  recognized 
a  green  object  as  blue  with  one  eye  and  yellow  with  the 
other,  one  eye  being  blind  to  blue,  the  other  to  yellow. 

831.  BLINDNESS  is  SOMETIMES  PRODUCED  by  an  im- 
perfection in  the  character  of  some  of  the  Media  of  the 
eye.     This  blindness  is  of  three  classes:  1st,  want  of 
transparency ;  2d,  too  little,  and  3d,  too  great,  refractory 
power. 

832.  THE  MEDIUM  THAT  is  WANTING  IN  TRANSPAR- 
ENCY can  sometimes  be  removed,  and  its  place  supplied 
with  a  glass  that  will,  in  a  measure,  restore  sight. 

833.  LONG  SIGHT  is  PRODUCED  either  because  the 
Media  of  the  eye  are  not  sufficiently  convex,  or  because 


825.  How  is  —  ?    826.  What  best  colors  for  reading?    827.  What  is  -  ?    829.  Is 
—  ?    880.  What  has  —  ?    881.  How  is  —  ?    882.  What  said  of  —  ?    833.  How  is  —  f 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    307 

the  means  for  adjusting  them  are  imperfect.  When  this 
occurs  in  youth,  as  it  sometimes  does,  an  effort  should 
be  made  to  bring  into  action  the  adjusting  means,  by 
looking  at  near  objects.  When  long  sight  is  the  result 
of  age,  sight  can  only  be  assisted  by  convex  glasses. 

834.  SHORT  SIGHT  is  PRODUCED  either  by  too  convex 
media  or  imperfect  means  of  adjustment. 

835.  Remark. — THE  FREQUENCY  OF  SHORT  SIGHT  IN  CHILDREN  can 
be  accounted  for,  if  it  is  remembered  that  as  the  eye  grows  one  part 
may  change  its  form  and  size  more  rapidly  than  another,  and  the  media 
of  the  small  eye  are  of  course  more  convex  than  those  of  the  large  one 
ought  to  be. 

836.  Inf. — CHILDREN  AND  YOUTH  should  accustom  themselves  and 
be  directed  to  read,  and  look  at  objects,  at  different  distances,  and,  if 
growing  near-sighted,  much  pains  should  be  taken  to  often  exert  the  eye 
in  looking  at  the  most  distant  objects  that  can  be  discerned. 

837.  SHORT  SIGHT,  DEPENDENT  ON  TOO  GREAT  CON- 
VEXITY OF  THE  MEDIA,  can  be  assisted  only  by  wearing 
concave  glasses,  which  should  be  carefully  adjusted,  and 
a  little  weaker  rather  than  stronger  than  is  essential  for 
clear  sight,  and  used  only  when  necessary. 

838.  Remark. — Do  not  let  any  near-sighted  child  or  youth  grow  up 
without  enjoying  the  assistance  of  glasses  in  viewing  nature.  Often  a 
person  is  to  a  degree  near-sighted,  and  is  not  aware  of  it,  losing  all  the 
delight  conferable  by  the  magnificence  of  the  starry  heavens  and  the 
widespread  beauty  of  Nature. 

839.  ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  should  be  of  the  same  kinds, 
and  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  proportions,  as  in 
sunlight;  should  be  abundant,  diffused,  and  come  from 
above  the  eye. 

840.  Remark. — LARD  gives  the  best  light,  "gas"  next  best,  of 
ordinary  materials ;  wax  gives  a  beautiful  light,  but  is  too  costly.  STU- 
DENTS SHOULD  RATHER  CLUB  THEIR  MEANS,  and  secure  a  brilliant  light, 
than  separately  use  an  inferior  one.  LIGHTS  SHOULD  NOT  BE  SHADED,  so 
as  to  make  a  bright  light  before  the  eyes  and  darkness  elsewhere,  as  the 
eye  must  change  too  suddenly  when  directed  from  one  object  to  another. 


884.  How  —  ?  835.  What  said  —  ?  836.  How  treat  the  eyes  of — ?  837.  What  said 
of  -  ?    838.  Should  glasses  be  used  ?    839.  What  said  of  —  ?    840.  What  said  of — ? 


308  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

841.  AT   THE    INNER   ANGLE    OF   THE    EYE    is  a  Small 

red  eminence  enclosing  a  cluster  of  sebaceous  glands, 
and  furnished  with  minute  hairs.  Sometimes  they  grow 
out  and  are  troublesome ;  they  are  then  merely  to  be 
extracted.  The  fleshy  part  sometimes  extends  over  the 
cornea ;  if  it  obscures  vision  or  is  troublesome,  it  should, 
as  it  can  very  easily,  be  removed. 

842.  COLDS,  WINDS,  AND  DUST  annoy  the  eye,  and 
may  cause  inflammation.     From  the  latter  it  can  be  pro- 
tected ;  the  former  should  be  avoided. 

843.  THE  EYE  is  SOMETIMES  PERMANENTLY  TURNED 
inward   (cross-eyed),  or  outward  (wall-eyed) ;   usually 
because  it  is  weak,  or  in  some  respect  imperfect. 

844.  Remark. — If  the  imperfection  is  outgrown,  and  yet  the  direc- 
tion of  the  eye  not  corrected,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  operation  of 
cutting  one  of  the  muscles  may  be  tried,  with  the  expectation  of  a  favor- 
able result ;  but  if  the  weakness  of  the  eye  continues,  the  operation  will 
be  worse  than  useless. 

845.  THE  EYE  is  A  COMPOUND  ORGAN:  the  eye 
proper  is  constructed  of  sinewy,  secretory,  muscular,  and 
nervous  tissues,  and  in  its  accessories  gristly  and  bony 
are  also  found. 

846.  Remark. — Thus  in  STRUCTURE,  in  MODE  OP  ACTION,  in  the 
CAUSES  THAT  EXCITE  IT,  and  THEIR  REGULATION,  and  in  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  the  preservation  of  the  eye,  there  is  a  remarkable  simplicity  that 
cannot  fail  to  excite  admiration  and  enlist  the  attentive  study  of  so  im- 
portant an  organ.  Some  other  exceedingly  interesting  facts  will  be  pre- 
sented, when  it  is,  with  other  organs,  made  up  into  the  apparatus  of 
sight. 

• 

TJie  Ear. 

847.  THE  EAR  is  one  of  the  most  delightsome  and 
precious  as  well  as  useful  of  the  organs  of  sense,  for  it  is 
not  only  attuned  to  all  the  sweet  and  varied  music  of 
nature,  but,  properly  cultivated,  it  enraptures  the  mind 
with  the  marvellous  productions  of  art.  No  other  organ 


841 .  What  —  ?    842.  What  said  of  —  ?    843.  How  —  ?    844.  Should  the  eye-mus- 
eles  be  cut  ?    845.  Is  —  ?    846.  What  said  of  —  ?    847.  What  said  of  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    309 

approaches  it  in  power  to  sway  the  mind.  The  persuasive 
tones  of  eloquence  through  the  ear  exert  more  power  to 
stir  or  stay  the  passions  of  men  than  all  the  arguments 
the  ablest  reasoner  can  address  to  the  judgment.  "Lend 
me  your  ears,"  said  the  ancient  orator ;  and  when  his 
hearers  had  done  that,  and  they  were  filled  with  the  be- 
witching cadences  of  his  voice,  they  were  the  unwitting 
slaves  .to  his  will.  Yet  as  a  physical  organ  of  hearing 
the  ear  is  exceedingly  simple :  its  wondrous  power  con- 
sists in  its  nervous  relations  to  the  mind. 

FIG.  201. 


Fig.  201  is  a  beautiful  view 
of  the  Ear ;  1,  external,  2,  mid- 
dle, 3,  inner  ear ;  13,  a  section 
of  the  air-tube,  which  section 
extends  through  the  front  of 
2,  and  the  middle  of  19,  a  tube 
called  Eustachian,  leading  to 
back  part  of  nostril.  If  a  per- 
son close  the  nose  and  mouth, 
and  blow  air  from  the  lungs, 
it  will  press  through  19  into 
2,  and  produce  a  sound.  14, 
bottom  of  air-tube,  a  vibrato- 
ry membrane  through  which 
forceis determined ;  22,  semi- 
circularcanals,  through  which 
quality  is  determined ;  24,  co- 
chlea, through  which  pitch  is 
determined ;  18,  bones  of  ear. 


848.  THE  EAR  is  CONSTRUCTED  in  three  parts,  called 
the  external,  middle,  and  internal  ears. 

849.  THE   EXTERNAL  EAR  is   CONSTRUCTED  of  the 
auricle,  or  ear,  and  the  meatus,  or  tube. 

850.  THE  AURICLE  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  a  framework 
of  gristle  and  sinewy  fibres  covered  with  skin,  in  which 
there  is  some  fat  and  numerous  oil-glands. 


Effect  of  -*>cal  cadences  ?    Describe  Fig.  201.    848.  How  is  —  ?    849.  How  is  —  ? 
850.  How  is  -?  I 


310 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


202.  851.  THE  MEATUS  is  CON- 

STRUCTED of  a  frame  partly 
gristly  and  partly  bony,lined 
with  skin,  in  which  there  are 
numerous  glands  secreting 
the  ear-wax.  The  meatus 
is  about  an  inch  in  length, 
inclining  a  little  downward 
fl  and  forward,  and  closed  by 
the  skin  lining  the  meatus 
stretching  across. 

Fig.  202,  1,  mouth  of;  2,  meatus 
extending  to  3,  bony  ring ;  4,  ham- 
mer attached  to  membrana  stretched 
upon  3 ;  5,  6,  7,  labyrinth  ;  the  anvil  closes  the  ovale  near  5. 

852.  THE  BOTTOM  OR  END  OF  THE  MEATUS  is  CALLED 
the  membrane  of  the  drum  (membrana  tympani).     It  is 
not  parallel  with  the  external  openings,  nor  is  it  stretched 
directly  across,  but  is  slightly  concave  or  funnel-shaped 
externally. 

853.  THE^USE  OF  THE  EXTERNAL  EAR  is  to  conduct  the 
vibrations  of  the  air  down  to  the  membrane  of  the  drum, 
which  is  thereby  thrown  into  corresponding  vibrations. 

854.  THE  MIDDLE  EAR  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  the  drum 
(tympanum),  Mastoid  cells,  and  Eustachian  tube. 

855.  THE  DRUM  is  a  cavity  about  as  large  as  a  kid- 
ney-bean, placed  flatwise  toward  the  external  ear.     It 
is  excavated  in  the  temporal  bone.   In  the  outside  of  the 
drum  is  the  membrane  previously  mentioned.     In  its  op- 
posite or  inside  bony  walls  are  two  openings,  called  the 
round  and  oval  windows  (fenestra  rotundum  and  ovale), 
the  former  covered  by  the  lining  of  the  drum,  and  the 
latter  closed  by  the  stirrup-bone  and  its  ligament. 

856.  A  CHAIN  OF  BONES,  the  smallest  in  the  body, 
stretches  across  the  drum.     The  hammer  is  attached  by 


851.  How  is  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  202.    852.  —  what?    858.  What  is  •*•?    854.  How 
is  _y    855.  flmt  is  —  ?    856.  Describe  the  — . 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES   INTO   OEGANS.    311 

one  arm  to  the  external  membrane,  and  by  its  head  is 
jointed  to  the  anvil,  which  by  one  arm  is  jointed  in 
early  life,  but  is  soon  consolidated  with  the  round  bone 
that  is  jointed  to  the  stirrup  attached  to  the  oval  window. 

857.  Three    ligaments    SUSPEND  THESE    BONES    in 
their  places,  and  three  delicate  muscles  CONTROL  THEIR 
MOVEMENTS,  tightening  or  relaxing  the  chain  of  bones, 
and  of  course  the  opposite  membranes  to  which  they 
are  attached. 

858.  THE  DRUM  is  LINED  by  a  very  delicate  mem- 
brane, that  is  continued  over  its  chain  of  bones  as  well : 
the  inner  surface  of  the  membrane  is  constructed  of  cells. 

859.  THE  MASTOID  CELLS  are  numerous  small  cavi- 
ties in  the  Mastoid  process,  just  back  of  the  ear,  opening 
into  the  back  part  of  the  drum,  and  lined  with  a  similar 
membrane.     Their  use  is  not  known. 

860.  THE  EUSTACHIAN  TUBE  is  one  in  which  the 
lower  part  of  the  drum  terminates :  it  narrows  till  not 
larger  than  a  crow-quill ;  then  enlarging,  opens  into  the 
side  of  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  nostril,  and  of  the 
pharynx. 

861.  THE  USE  OF  THE  EUSTACHIAN  TUBE  is  to  allow 
air  to  pass  into  the  drum;  and  when  it  is  closed  by  a  cold 
or  disease,  hearing  is  lost.     It  also  serves  as  a  drain  to 
the  drum  and  mastoid  cells,  and  is  sometimes  closed  by 
collections  from  them. 

862.  THE  INTERNAL  EAR  (labyrinth)  is  CONSTRUCTED 
of  a  vestibule,  semicircular  canals,  and  cochlea. 

863.  THE  VESTIBULE  is  an  irregular,  small,  oval  cav- 
ity, wrought  into  the  bone;    into  it  the  oval  window 
would  open  if  the  stirrup  should  be  removed.      It  is 
directly  within  the  drum.     It  is  lined  with  a  delicate 
membrane,  adhering  to  the  bone  on  one  side,  and  finish- 
ed with  cells  on  the  other,  and  is  filled  with  serous  fluid 
called  peri-lymph. 


857.  What  — ?  85S.  How  is  —  ?  859.  What  are  — ?  860.  What  is  — ?   861.  What 
is  —  ?    862.  How  is  —  ?    863.  What  is  —  ? 


312  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

864.  THE  MEMBRANOUS  VESTIBULE  is  a  sac  nearly 
filling  the  bony  vestibule,  floating  in  the  peri-lymph,  and 
itself  also  filled  with  similar  fluid,  called  endo-lymph. 

865.  THE   SEMICIRCULAR    CANALS   are   three    small 
tubes  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  opening  out  of  the 
vestibule   (two,  however,  conjoining)   by  five   orifices. 
Each  canal  has  an  enlargement  near  one  end.     The  bony 
canals  are  lined  with  the  extended  lining  of  the  vestibule 
and  filled  with  peri-lymph. 

866.  THE  MEMBRANOUS  VESTIBULE  is  ALSO  EXTENDED 
through  the  canals,  and  correspondingly  filled.     Both 
surfaces  of  this  membrane  are  formed  of  cells. 

867.  WITHIN  THE  MEMBRANE  are  small  collections 
of  minute   crystalline   particles   of  carbonate   of  lime 
(otolites)  that  adhere  together  and  are  connected  with 
the  filaments  of  nerves  that  terminate  in  the  fluid  con- 
tained in  the  sacs  of  the  membranous  labyrinth. 

868.  THE  COCHLEA  is,  as  its  name  signifies,  like  a 
cockle-shell  in  shape,  and  is  constructed  with  a  spiral 
cavity  like  that  in  the  cockle,  turned  nearly  three  times 
round  its  axis,  and  rising  with  each  turn. 

869.  THE  SPIRAL  CAVITY  is  DIVIDED  nearly  in  its 
centre  by  a  partition  stretching  across  from  its  axis  out- 
wardly, about  one  third  being  bone,  one  third  membrane, 
and  the  other  third  muscular.     The  partition  does  not 
extend  quite  to  the  top.     Here  both  cavities  unite,  form- 
ing what  is  called  the  cupola.     The  spiral  cavities  are 
called  scalse. 

870.  THE  MOUTH  OP  ONE  OF  THE  SCALAE  COMMENCES 
at  the  round  window;  the  other  opens  from  the  vestibule, 
but  does  not  communicate  with  the  inside  of  the  mem- 
branous part.     Both  spirals  are  lined  with  the  extended 
lining  of  the  bony  vestibule,  and  filled  with  the  same 
peri-lymph. 

871.  NERVES  EXTEND  UP  THE  AXIS  OF  THE  COCHLEA, 


864.  What  is  —  T    865.  What  are  —  ?    866.  How  is  —  ?     867.  What  are  —  ? 
868.  What  is  —  ?    869.  How  is  —  ?    870.  —  where  ?    871.  How  do  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OP  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    313 

and  out  in  the  spiral  partition  between  the  scalse,  and 
terminate  in  numerous  nerve-cells  that  are  there  situated 
in  several  rows. 

FIG.  203. 
D 

N 


Fig.  203,  ideal  ear.  M,  the  Meatus  or  external  tube ;  D,  drum,  with  a 
chain  of  bones  stretching  across  it  from  the  external  membrane  to  the  in- 
ternal membrane,  covering  an  opening  into  the  labyrinth,  filled  with  fluid, 
in  which  the  nerve,  N,  is  suspended.  Ey  Eustachian  tube. 

872.  THE  GENEEAL  MODE  OF  ACTION  OP  THE  EAR 
MAY  BE  UNDERSTOOD  by  observing  the  preceding  figure. 
The  various  vibrations  of  air  pass  down  the  tube  M  and 
throw  its  membrane  into  vibrations ;  through  the  chain 
of  bones  the  internal  membrane  is  caused  to  vibrate;  the 
fluid  in  which  the  nerve  is  suspended  is  thus  acted  upon, 
and  the  nerve  consequently  affected. 

873.  THREE  MODIFICATIONS  OP  THE  GENERAL  MODE 
OF  ACTION  FOR  HEARING  will  be  necessary,  in  accordance 
with  the  three  classes  or  characteristics  of  vibrations,  by 
which  they  manifest  intensity,  pitch,  and  quality. 

874.  THE  INTENSITY  OF  VIBRATION  is  DETERMINED 
by  the  space  it  moves  over  in  a  given  time ;  and  that 
can  very  well  be  measured  by  the  action  of  the  vibra- 
tion on  the  membrane  of  the  drum,  and  the  muscular 


Describe  Fig.  203.    What  is  the  difference  between  nn  id«al  and  real  Figure  ? 
872.  How  may  —  ?    873.  What  —  ?    874.  How  is  —  ? 
14 


314  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

action  needed  to  keep  it  tense  under  the  influence'  of 
the  vibration. 

Remark.  —  Thus  muscular  action  and  sensation  is  again  used  to  de- 
termine force,  as  it  always  is  in  the  body.  According  to  the  action  of 
the  muscles  of  the  middle  ear,  so  are  the  sensations  they  will  cause. 

875.  THE  PITCH  OP  VIBRATIONS  is  DETERMINED  by 
the  number  of  vibrations  in  a  given  time. 

876.  Illus.  —  If  a  string  of  a  certain  tensity  is  vibrating  a  certain 
number  of  times  in  a  second,  one  of  half  its  length  at  the  same  tensity 
would  vibrate  twice  as  many  times  in  a  second,  and  its  sound  would  be 
an  octave  higher. 

877.      IN  THE  SPIRAL  PARTITION  BETWEEN  THE  SCALJ3 

OF  THE  COCHLEA  exist  all  the  requisites  for  appreciating 
the  rapidity  of  vibrations  ;  for  from  bottom  to  top  the 
scalas  and  their  partition  diminish  by  a  perfect  gradation 
corresponding  to  every  possible  period  or  pitch  of  vibra- 
tion of  the^air. 

878.  Him.  —  If  a  musical  instrument  is  sounded  near  a  harp  or  a 
piano,  a  string  of  these  instruments,  corresponding  in  proportionate 
length,  and  being  of  course  in  harmony  with  the  instrument  sounded, 
will  also  be  thrown  into  vibration,  and  cause  a  sound. 

879.  THE  QUALny  OP  VIBRATIONS  is  determined  by 
some  as  yet  un  distinguishable  characteristic  of  the  vi- 
brations, different  in  case  of  almost  everything  causing 
sound. 

880.  Remark.  —  Herein  is  a  wonder  of  wonders  —  that  there  is  some- 
thing so  perfectly  evident,  and  yet  eluding  our  grasp  most  effectually  ! 
It  is  also  still  more  strange  that  this  can  be  so  when  there  are  so  many 
millions  of  different  qualities  hi  sounds  and  of  course  vibrations,  in  every 
human  voice  not  only,  but  that  of  every  bird  and  even  of  every  insect,  as 
well  as  in  all  the  noises  of  dumb  nature. 


881.  THE  NERVES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE 
AND  THE  SEMICIRCULAR  CANAL  are  constructed  for  the 
purpose  of  appreciating  the  qualities  of  vibrations,  the 
effects  of  which  reach  them;  for  there  is  no  other  office 


875.  Howls  — ?   876.  Illustrate.    877.  What  exist -?   878.  Illustrate.    879. How 
determine  —  ?    880.  What  wonderful  —  ?    881.  What  said  of  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    315 

for  them  to  perform.  That  office  is  performed  by  some 
part,  and  many  arguments  drawn  from  the  structure  of 
the  ear  in  lower  animals  go  to  establish  the  statement. 

882.  THE  EAR  MIGHT  BE  CONSTRUCTED  by  tracing 
out  the  nerves  of  hearing  from  their  ganglia  till  an  ap- 
propriate place  is  found  in  the  outer  walls  of  the  head 
for  suspending  the  nerves  and  their  cells  in  contact  with 
an  enclosed  fluid ;  in  front  of  which  appropriate  media, 
the  middle  and  outer  ears  should  be  constructed  for  re- 
ceiving and  transmitting  the  extremely  delicate  vibra- 
tions of  the  most  sensitive  of  all  material  things,  the  air, 
capable  of  vibrating  in  three  modes,  expressive  of  inten- 
sity, pitch,  and  quality,  through  a  great  range  of  each. 

883.  IN  THE   STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EAR  all  six  (JR.,  dr., 

Si.,  M.,  JV.y  /8e.)  tissues  are  required. 

884.  Remark. — There  ARE  PEW  CAUSES  OP  DERANGEMENT  OP  THE 
EAR.  Ear-wax  is  sometimes  allowed  to  collect  and  harden  in  the  tube ; 
a  little  sweet  oil  dropped  into  it  several  times  and  washed  out  with  cas- 
tile  soap  and  warm  water  will  suffice  to  remove  that  difficulty.  Colds 
are  very  apt  to  affect  hearing,  through  the  Eustachian  tube ;  they  must  be 
very  carefully  avoided  if  they  affect  hearing.  If  it  is  thus  permanently 
stopped  the  opening  can  sometimes  be  regained  by  passing  a  tube  into 
it.  If  that  cannot  be  done,  sometimes  hearing  can  be  regained  by  making 
an  opening  in  the  external  membrane.  If  a  watch  placed  against  the 
head  can  be  heard,  there  is  hope.  Throat  diseases,  scarlet  fever,  etc., 
are  very  liable  to  leave  children  with  a  hardness  of  hearing.  To  prevent 
that  result,  and  to  prevent  still  worse  effects,  great  care  should  be  taken 
during  recovery  from  such  diseases  to  avoid  taking  cold ;  and  if  it  occurs, 
and  care  is  taken,  the  trouble  will  usually  be  outgrown,  or,  if  it  is  not, 
it  will  ingrow  deeper. 


SECTION  VL 

Circulatory  Organs. 

885.     The   Circulatory   Organs   are   of  five  kinds: 
Capillaries,  Veins,  Arteries,  Hearts,  and  Lymphatics. 

882.  How  —  ?    888.  What  tissues  required  --?   884.  What  are  to  —  ?    What  the 
effect  of  taking  cold  upon  hearing?    885.  Class  circulatory  organs. 


316 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


Capillaries. 

886.  CAPILLARIES  are  exceedingly  minute  tubes  dif- 
fering slightly  in  size  in  different  parts,  but  uniform  in 
size  in  a  given  part,  united  with  each  other  so  as  to  form 
a  network,  the  meshes  of  which  vary  in  size  and  arrange- 
ment in  different  parts,  according  to  their  structure  and 
requirements  in  respect  to  Blood.  The  capillaries  are 
the  most  essential  parts  of  the  circulation,  always  exist- 
ing first  and  acting  last  in  life,  the  other  parts  being 
added  in  order  to  pass  the  blood  from  one  set  of  capil- 
laries to  another. 

FIG.  204=. 


Fig.  204  represents  a  portion  of  frog's  foot,  during  life,  very  much  mag- 
nified :  a,  an  artery ;  b,  a  vein  deeper  than  c,  a  network  of  capillaries  near 
the  surface.  In  the  network  the  two  kinds  of  blood-cells  are  noticeable; 
the  red  ones  are  largest,  and,  from  compression  in  the  minute  capillaries, 
somewhat  elongated.  The  white  cells  are  also  noticeable  at  1,  in  the  arte- 
ry, near  its  walls,  the  red  cells  pouring  along  in  the  centre  so  rapidly  as 
not  to  be  separately  discerned,  and  only  as  a  dark  current,  as  represented. 
Above  c,  in  the  centre,  a  capillary  has  been  ruptured  and  cells  are  crowd- 
ing into  the  adjoining  mesh.  The  irritation  thus  caused  has  retarded  the 
circulation  in  the  neighboring  capillaries,  and  the  cells  are  crowding  each 
other.  The  irregular  black  spots  are  pigment-cells  that  give  color  to  the 
part. 

686.  What  are  —  ?  What  different  figures  represent  capillaries?  Describe 
Fig.  204. 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    317 


887.  Remark.— THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  CAPILLA-  FIG.  205. 
KIES  is  so  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  structure  to 
which  they  belong  that  an  examination  of  a  small  por- 
tion of  a  capillary  network  would  determine  whence  it 
came.  In  Fig.  205,  5,  5,  represents  a  network  of  capil- 
laries around  the  root  of  a  hair,  3. 

888.  THE  CAPILLARIES  ARE  CONSTRUCT- 
ED of  a  homogeneous  membrane,  like  base- 
ment membrane,  with  nuclear  spots  in  its 
sides,  shown  in  c,  Fig.  206,  capillaries,  into 
which  a,  an  artery,  opens. 

889.  THE   CAPILLARIES  OPEN  from  the 
arteries  on  the  one  hand  and  into  veins  on 

the  other,  as  a  rule,  but  there  are  ex-  FIG-  206. 

ceptions,  1st,  in  which  capillaries  only- 
are  the  means  necessary  for  a  very 
limited  circulation,  and,  2d,  where  ca- 
pillaries open  from  and  into  veins, — 
for  example  in  the  liver. 

890.  THE  USE  OF  THE  CAPILLA- 
RIES is  to  bring  the  Blood  into  very 
near  relations  with  the  parts  upon 

which  it  is  to  act,  or  with  the  substances  that  are  to 
act  upon  it. 

891.  There  DO  NOT  APPEAR  to  be  any  apertures  or 
pores  IN  THE  SIDES  OF  A  CAPILLARY  more  than  there  are 
in  the  sides  of  a  soap-bubble,  but  the  substances  it  con- 
tains pass  through  it  at  any  point,  and  substances  pass 
into  it  without  any  rupture.     Where  one  occurs,  as  in 
Fig.  204,  the  entire  contents  burst  out. 

892.  THE  SUBSTANCES  ABOUT  TO  PASS  OUT  FROM  THE 
CAPILLARY  approach  its  inner  surface  from  the  current 
that  is  more  quickly  flowing  through  its  centre,  then  hesi- 
tate, are  quiet  for  an  instant,  and,  in  the  twinkling  of  an 
eye,  appear  on  the  outside. 


887.  What  said  of  —  ?    888.  How  are  —  ? 
891.  What  —  ?    892.  What  said  of  —  ? 


J.  How  do  -  ?    890.  What  is  —  f 


318  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

893.  Remark. — IT  is  EVIDENT,  FROM  Fie.  204,  that  there  is  consider- 
able  space  between  the  capillaries,  filled  with  the  substructures  of  the  part ; 
and  the  substances  having  made  their  exit  from  the  capillaries,  must 
travel  on  to  their  destined  place  of  use.  So  also  must  those  that  have  ful- 
filled their  purpose  travel  back  a  greater  or  less  distance  to  the  free 
moving  current  in  the  capillaries. 

894.  Inf. — Thus  there  is  A  CIRCULATION  OUTSIDE  THE  CIRCULATION 
IN  THE  BLOOD-VESSELS,  a  great  commotion  of  substances  moving  to  and 
fro,  the  whole  living  body  being  a  mass  of  activity ;  and  rubbing  the  body 
and  muscular  contraction  promotes  this  essential  activity,  this  internal 
circulation,  in  a  still  more  important  degree  than  they  do  the  general  or 
external  circulation  in  the  Blood-vessels. 

895.  Remark. — IT  is  NOT  SETTLED  whether  the  capillaries  are  mere- 
ly passive  tubes  or  also  adapted  to  secrete  substances.    The  appearance 
of  the  wall  of  the  capillary  is  like  that  of  secretory  tissue ;  and  while  it 
acts,  to  a  certain  degree,  passively,  hi  allowing  certain  substances  to  pass 
through  it,  without  change,  it  appears  even  then  to  have  a  selecting  in- 
fluence, or  else  it  is  exerted  through  the  wall  by  the  -structures  outside. 
In  other  cases,  as  hi  the  ganglia,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  reason 
to  believe  the  capillaries  do  not  secrete  the  granular  substance  which  ia 
found  around  them,  and  is  doubtless  the  material  from  which  the  cells 
are  formed. 

Veins. 

896.  VEINS  ARE  continuations  of  the  capillaries,  the 
wall  of  the  latter  being  the  basement  membrane  of  the 
former.     It  is  lined  with  squamous  (scale-like)  or  pave- 
ment-cells, and  is  surrounded  with  sinewy  fibres,  partly 
white  or  inelastic  and  partly  yellow  or  elastic.    By  these 
means  the  vessel  is  strengthened  and  thickened.     In  the 
larger  branches  a  few  unstriated  muscular  fibrillaB  are 
found. 

897.  The  LARGER  VEINS   of   the   extremities,  the 
walls  of  the  Trunk  and  Head,  and  the  superficial  veins 
of  the  neck,  ARE  FURNISHED  WITH  VALVES. 

898.  Ittus. — The  positions  of  some  of  these  can  be  seen  by  rub- 
bing the  finger  down  upon  the  skin  over  the  veins  in  the  back  of  the 
hand,  since  the  blood  is  pressed  against  the  valves,  closing  them,  and  dis- 

898.  What  is  — ?    894.  Is  there  —  ?    895.  What—?    Do  capillaries  secrete  in  gan- 
glia ?    896.  What  —  ?    897.  What  —  ?    898.  How  positions  of  vein-valves  seen  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    319 

tending  the  vein.  If  the  finger  is  carried  below  the  valve,  the  blood  is 
pressed  away  from  it,  and  the  vein  between  the  valve  and  finger  will  be 
empty. 


Fig.  207  represents,  a,  vein,  laid 
open  by  a  section  of  one  side,  show- 
ing two  sets  of  valves,  in  pairs,  b, 
same  vein,  in  perpendicular  section, 
through  one  set  of  valves.  ct  same 
vein,  entire,  showing  the  distension 
of  the  vein  behind  the  valves. 


Figs.  208,  209, 
are  plans  of  veins, 
showing  how  the 
blood  flows  into 
side  branches  be- 
low the  valves  when 
they  are  closed. 


899.  THE  USE  OF  THE  VALVES  is  to  prevent  the 
Blood,  when  pressure  is  made  upon  the  veins,  from  flow- 
ing back  into  the  capillaries. 

900.  Remark. — The  valves  of  the  lower  extremities  are  very  nu- 
merous, yet  the  severe  and  continued  pressure  upon  the  veins  there  not 
unfrequently  distends  them  till  the  valves  fail  to  close  them,  and  the 
Blood  flows  back,  distending  the  veins  below  to  a  greater  degree,  caus- 
ing a  knotted  appearance  of  the  veins,  called  varicose.    In  this  case,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  pressure  should  be  removed,  and  an  elastic  bandage 
worn  over  the  entire  extremity  below  the  upper  part  of  the  varicose 
condition.    Standing  positions  are  apt  to  produce  this  condition. 

901.  Inf. — The  arrangement  of  the  valves  teaches  that  when  the 


Describe  Fig.  207.    Describe  Fig.  208.    Describe  Fig.  209.    899.  What  is  —  ? 
900.  What  are  varicose  veins  ?    901.  What  do  the  valves  teach  ? 


320  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

surface  is  rubbed,  the  outward  movement  should  be  made  with  gentle 
pressure,  and  that  toward  the  centre  of  the  body  with  vigor. 

902.  THE  VEINS  EXTEND  FROM  THE  CAPILLARIES  of 
the  body  toward  the  chest  in  two  courses,  one  near  the 
surface,  and  another  deep,  near  the  arteries,  most  of 
which  have  a  vein  on  each  side.     These  two  courses  fre- 
quently communicate,  both  directly  and  indirectly.     In 
both  courses,  but  particularly  in  the  superficial  one,  the 
veins  unite  nearly  at  right  angles,  as  seen  on  the  back 
of  the  hand.     They  at  last  unite  at  the  auricles  of  the 
heart,  into  which  they  pour  the  Blood  drained  from 
every  part  of  the  body. 

903.  THE  USE  OF  THE  VEINS  is  merely  that  of  passive 
strong  tubes,  allowing  the  flow  of  Blood  from  one  part 
of  the  body  to  another.     The  force  of  its  flow  through 
the  veins  is  derived  from  or  through  the  capillaries,  the 
action  of  the  muscles  about  them,  and  temporary  pres- 
sure upon  the  surface  of  the  body. 

904.  Inf. — Rubbing  the  surface  must  promote  circulation  of  Blood 
in  veins. 

905.  VEINS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  OF  THREE  TISSUES,  a 
framework  of  sinewy,  a  lining  of  secretory,  and  a  little 
muscular. 

Hearts. 

906.  HEARTS  MAY  BE  CONSIDERED  as  merely  veins, 
with  walls  thickened  with  muscular  tissue ;  for,  if  in  the 
walls  of  a,  Fig.  207,  considerable  muscular  tissue  should 
be  introduced,  a  heart  would  be  constructed. 

907.  Remark. — The  form  of  the  heart  is  not  an  essential  point,  a 
muscular  pouch  of  any  form,  with  valves  at  its  two  openings,  allowing 
the  Blood  to  move  in  only  one  direction,  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Hearts 
like  that  suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraph  exist  in  some  animals, 
and  the  human  heart  is  the  same  in  general  principles,  its  modifications 
adapting  it  to  its  peculiar  offices. 

902.  How  do — ?  903.  What  is  —  ?  904.  Effect  of  rubbing.  90&  Of  what  -  f 
906.  How  may  —  ?  907.  Is  form  essential  in  the  heart? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    321 


FlQ.  210. 


Back  view  of  Heart. 


908.  THE    HUMAN- 
HEART  is  merely  a  hol- 
low, heart-shaped  mus- 
cle, with  several  com- 
partments  and  valves, 
lined  with  a  continua- 
tion  of  the   lining    of 
the   veins   (the    serous 
coat),  and  covered  with 
a   similar   coat;    three 
coats  in  all.     It  weighs 
about    ten    ounces,    is 
about    five    inches    in 
length  by  three  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  and  is 

enclosed  in  a  heart-case  (pericardium),  the  inner  surface 
of  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  membrane  forming  the 
surface  of  the  heart. 

909.  THE  HEART  is  SUSPENDED  to  the  spinal  column 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  by  the  blood-vessels  and 
ligaments  connected  with  its  base  (that  is  above),  and 
extends  downward,  forward,  and  slightly  to  the  left,  be- 
hind the  breast-bone ;  the  place  where  it  is  felt  beating 
being  against  its  extreme  left  and  lower  point. 

910.  WHEN    THE    HEART  CONTRACTS,   its  point  is 
thrown  forward  and  strikes  against  the  chest-walls ;  this 
point  being  supposed  to  be  over  the  centre  of  the  heart, 
it  is  thought  to  be  lower  and  more  to  the  left  than  it  is. 

911.  Illus. — Speakers  will,   unawares,   not   unfrequently  indicate 
their  true  feelings  by  referring  to  the  heart,  and  placing  the  hand  more 
nearly  over  the  stomach  than  over  the  region  the  heart  occupies. 

912.  Remark. — Instances  have  occurred  in  which  the  heart  inclined 
to  the  right  rather  than  the  left  side. 

913.  THE  HEART  is  SEPARATED  FROM  THE  LUNGS, 
between  which  it  hangs,  by  its  heart-case,  and  by  the 
partitions  17,  Fig.  211,  that  pass  across  from  the  breast- 

908.  What  is  —  ?    909.  How  is  —  ?    910.  Effect  when  —  ?    911.  What  is  a  fre- 
quent blunder  of  speakers  ?    913.  How  is  —  ? 
14* 


322 


DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 
Fio.  211. 


Fig.  211  represents  the  chest  opened.  16,  the  lungs,  have  receded  a 
little,  a  section  of  17,  the  membrane,  lining  the  chest  having  been  made. 
A  portion  of  the  pericardium,  1,  has  also  been  removed,  exposing  the 
heart,  5,  8,  one  auricle,  4,  and  the  commencement  of  its  arteries,  6,  7,  9, 
and  3,  the  inner  extremity  of  one  vein,  seen  above  at  2;  10,  the  continua- 
tion of  9,  which  is  attached  to  8,  heart,  behind  6;  11, 12, 13,  branches;  14, 
Thyroid  gland ;  15,  windpipe. 

bone  to  the  spinal  column,  curving  round  the  heart,  and 
forming  a  wall  to  enclose  the  cavity  of  each  chest.  These 
partitions  and  the  heart-case  are  formed  of  sinewy,  and 
their  free  surfaces  of  serous  secretory,  tissue. 

914.  THE  COMPARTMENTS  OF  THE  HEART  are  four,  in 
pairs,  named  ventricles  and  auricles,  right  and  left,  pul- 
monary and  systemic. 


Describe  Fig.  211.    Does  chest  of  Fig.  211  appear  compressed  ?    Do  Lungs  and 
Heart  appear  to  fill  it  ?    914.  What  are  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO   OEGANS.    323 


915.  Remark. — Rightly  speaking,  the  auricles  are  the  enlarged 
inner  extremities  of  veins,  and  should  be  considered  thus ;  the  hearts 
being  constructed  properly  of  ventricles. 

916.  THE  PAIRS  OF  VENTRICLES  AND  AURICLES  have 
not  any  communication,  and  therefore  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  two  distinct  hearts,  that  are  adjoining, 
because  they  can  thus  assist  each  other,  be  thus  formed 
of  less  material,  and  because  the  place  adapted  for  one  is 
perfectly  adapted  for  the  other. 

917.  EXTERNALLY  THE  HEART  APPEARS  TO  BE  a  unit, 
but  internally,  physiologically,  it  is  double. 

FIG.  212. 

918.  Remark. — In  some  ani- 
mals, as  in  the  Dugong,  Fig.  212, 
the  hearts  are  nearly  distinct  exter- 
nally. 

919.  THE  AURICLES  OF 
THE  HEART  are  very  similar. 
Their  name  is  derived  from 
an  appendage  or  extension, 
that,  particularly  in  the  case 
of  the  right  auricle,  appears 
a  little  like  a  dog's  ear.  They 
are  irregular-shaped  cavities 

of  small  size,  and  compared  with  the  ventricles  have 
thin,  but  compared  with  the  veins  thick,  walls. 

920.  THE  AURICLES  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  of  a  continua- 
»  tion  of  the  veins,  that  terminate  in  them ;  or  in  fact,  they 

are  the  inner  extremities  of  the  veins,  with  some  muscular 
tissue  inserted  in  their  walls,  that,  from  the  uniting  of 
several  veins,  have  changed  from  a  tubular  to  an  irregu- 
lar, pouched  form.  The  muscular  tissue  reaches  out  into 
the  walls  of  the  adjoining  veins  a  varying  distance. 

921.  THE  AURICLES  HAVE  several  openings  on  their 
sides  toward  the  veins,  at  which  there  are  no  valves,  and 
one  opening  toward  the  ventricle  with  valves  through 


915.  How  should  auricles  be  considered  ?    916.  What  said  of  —  ?    91 7.  What  —  ? 
Describe  Fig.  212.    919.  What  said  of  —  ?    920.  How  —  ? 


324 


DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 


which,  in  case  of  the  right  auricle,  blood  can  flow  back 
if  much  force  is  exerted;  but  in  case  of  the  left  auricle, 
none  can  flow  backward,  or  the  lungs  might  be  endan- 
gered. 

922.  THE  VENTRICLES  ARE  ALSO  SIMILAR,  the  right 
being  a  little  more  capacious,  and  its  walls  thinner,  than 
the  left. 

923.  THE   INNER   SURFACE  OP  THE  VENTRICLES  is 
smooth ;  at  the  same  time  it  is  uneven,  many  bundles  of 
fibres    (columnce  carnce)   extending   across  the  cavity, 
some  of  them  connected  with  the  points  of  valves,  as 
shown  at  9,  Fig.  213. 

FIG.  213. 


Fig.  213,  heart, 
the  front  view; 

I,  right,  2,  left, 
or  systemic  ven- 
tricle, with  por- 
tion removed;  3, 
R.  auricle;  4  L. 
auricle;  5,  artery 
opening  from  2 ; 
6,  7,  8,  tricuspid 
valves,  connect- 
ed by  muscles,  9, 
to  inner  surface 
of  heart;  10,  bi- 
cuspid    valves ; 

II,  semilunar 
valves     opening 
into   11,  artery, 
leading  to  lungs 
(pulmonary). 


922.  Are  -  ?    923.  What  said  of  -  ? 
ing  into  nrtery  callwl  soinilun:ir  ? 


Describe  Fig.  213.     Why  are  valves  open- 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    325 

924.  EACH  VENTRICLE    HAS    TWO    OPENINGS,   one 
into  and  the  other  out  of  it,  both  situated  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  ventricle,  and  both  furnished  with  valves. 

925.  THE  VALVES  AROUND  THE  OPENING  INTO  THE 
VENTRICLE  have  an  irregular,  fringed   edge,  are   con- 
structed of  sinewy  tissue,  and  so  arranged  that  when  the 
heart  contracts,  and  the  fibres  attached  to  them  relax, 
the  contents  of  the  ventricle,  crowding  against  the  inner 
surface  of  the  valves,  presses  them  together,  and  their 
position  being   regulated  by  their  muscles,  the  orifice 
is  closed.      In  the  right,  or  pulmonary  ventricle,  the 
valves  having  three  main  divisions  are  called  tricuspid ; 
in  the  left  ventricle,  the  valves  having  two  general  divi- 
sions are  called  bicuspid. 

926.  THE  VALVES  AROUND  THE  OPENINGS  FROM  THE 
HEARTS  have  a  half-moon  shape,  and  are  called  semilu- 
nar,  each  one  partially  overlapping  its  fellow ;  and  at  the 
centre  of  each  there  is  a  little  point,  situated  in  such  a 
manner  that,  when  the  valves  are  down,  the  opening  is 
perfectly  closed. 

927.  THE  USE  OF  THE  VENTRICLES  is  to  receive  the 
Blood  from  the  auricles,  and,  by  contraction,  pour  it  out 
into  the  arteries. 

928.     Inf. — The  auricles  and  ventricles  should  not  contract  at  the 
same  tune  ;  the  auricles  should  first  contract,  and  then  the  ventricles. 

929.  THE  AURICLES  OF  BOTH  HEARTS  CONTRACT  at 
the  same  time,  occupying  one  fourth  of  the  time  of  a  full 
contraction  of  the  heart,  thus  resting  three  fourths  of  the 
time. 

930.  THE  VENTRICLES  OF  BOTH  HEARTS  CONTRACT  at 
the  same  time,  occupying  one  half  the  time,  and  resting 
the  remainder  of  a  full  beat. 

931.  THE  CONTRACTIONS  OF  THE  HEART  IN  HEALTH, 
AT  MATURITY,  are  from  60  to  80  per  minute,  more  fre- 
quent in  woman  than  in  man,  and  in  early  than  in  late 

924.  What  has  —  ?  925.  Describe  — .  926.  Describe  — .  92T.  What  is  —  ?  928.  Or- 
der of  heart's  contraction.    929.  How  do  —  ?    930.  How  do  —  ?    931.  What  are  —  ? 


326  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

life,  varying  also  according  to  health,  exercise  taken, 
state  of  mind,  etc. 

932.  THE  CAPACITY  OF  EACH  VENTRICLE  is  at  least 
between  one  and  two  ounces,  and  if  80  beats  per  minute 
are  made,  and  only  one  ounce  is  received  and  thrown 
out,  it  will  equal  five  pounds  per  minute,  three  hundred 
pounds,  or  more  than  a  barrel,  per  hour ! 

933.  Inf.— The  contemplation  of  the  statistics  of  the  labor  per- 
formed by  the  heart,  and  of  the  great  change  that  must  go  on  in  the 
body  to  render  such  action  necessary,  must  convince  every  one  of  the 
importance  of  properly  exercising  and  rubbing  the  body,  and  indeed  of 
doing  everything  that  will  exert  a  favorable  influence  on  the  circulation. 

934.  Remark. — IF  EXERCISE   QUICKENS  THE   HEART'S  ACTION  ten 
beats  per  minute,  that  circulates  ten  ounces  more  blood  per  minute,  or 
forty  pounds  more  per  hour ;  an  immense  advantage  hi  the  way  of  pro- 
moting changes  hi  the  body. 

935.  THE  HEARTS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  of  three  tissues: 
Sinewy,  Muscular,  and  Secretory. 

936.  THE  NECESSITY  FOR  TWO  HEARTS  arises  from 
the  fact  that  all  the  Blood  of  the  body,  as  soon  as  it  has 
passed  through  the  capillaries,  needs  to  be  acted  upon 
by  the  air,  and  must  be  therefore  forced  through  the 
lungs  as  soon  as  it  can  be  drawn  together  from  the  cap- 
illaries.    The  delicate  structure  of  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs  would  not  tolerate  the  force  necessary  to  drive 
the  Blood  through  them  and  then  out  into  all  parts  of 
the  body,  or,  if  they  would,  such  a  force  would  drive  the 
Blood  through  them  too  rapidly;  therefore,  after  the 
Blood  has  been  passed  through  the  lungs,  it  must  be  re- 
ceived by  another  heart. 

937.  Inf. — Since  the  Blood  loses  more  than  it  gains  in  the  lungs, 

THE  SECOND   HEART  MENTIONED  NEED  NOT  BE  SO  CAPACIOUS  AS  THE  OTHER ; 

but  as  it  must  drive  the  Blood  farther,  and  through  greater  obstructions, 
it  should  be  thicker  and  stronger. 

938.  Inf. — Since  the  same  Blood  that  goes  through  the  lungs  is  to 
be  thrown  out,  BOTH  HEARTS  SHOULD  BEAT  THE  SAME  NUMBER  OF  TIMES 


982.  What-?    938.  What  do  statistics  of  heart  show?   934.  What  if  — ?   935.  Of 
what  tissues  -  ?    936.  What  —  ?    937.  Why  need  -  ?    938.  Should  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    327 

EXACTLY,  and  therefore  may  act  together,  while  their  relative  size  and 
expansion  must  be  in  exact  ratio  to  the  activity  in  the  lungs. 


Arteries. 


FIG.  214. 


FIG.  215. 


Fig.  214  represents  the  thigh  dis- 
sected to  show  the  large  artery,  1, 
and  numerous  branches  of  it.   Notice 
at  7  where  it  is  over  the  bone,  and 
near  the  surface,  and    easily  com- 
pressed.   Notice  at  16  (anastomosis) 
where  a  branch  from  below  unites 
with  one  from  above.    Notice  that 
from  10  to  19  is  the  region  for  applying  a  tourniquet  to  compress  the  artery. 
Fig.  215  represents  the  large  artery,  9, 10,  of  the  arm  beneath  the  inner 
edge  of  the  biceps,  2.    Observe  how  it  winds  forward  into  the  elbow-joint, 
as  1  does  behind  the  knee.     Notice  the  anastomosis  of  16. 


Describe  Fig.  214.    Describe  Fig.  215.    What  does  anastomosis  mean?    Point 
out  the  position  of  main  arteries. 


328  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

939.  ARTERIES  are  very  firm  tubes  that  commence 
by  a  single  trunk  from  each  heart,  and  lead,  in  one  case, 
into  the  lungs,  and,  in  the  other,  into  all  parts  of  the 
body. 

940.  THE  NUMBER  AND  CAPACITY  or  THE  ARTERIES 
is  only  about  one  third  that  of  the  veins  in  the  system 
generally,  and  about  one  half  of  that  in  the  lungs ;  but 
as  the  arteries  receive  the  blood  directly  from  the  heart, 
it  flows  rapidly  through  them. 

941.  THE  ARTERIES  OF  THE  SYSTEM  ARISE  (Fig.  44) 
from  the  left,  or  systemic  heart,  by  a  single  trunk  (Aorta) 
that  turns   down   with   a  beautiful  arch,  from  which 
branches  sweep  out  into  the  arms  and  lead  directly  up 
to  the  head.     The  main  subdivisions  above  and  below 
are  noticeably  few  and  large,  throughout  their  length 
giving  off  very  numerous  small  branches  and  twigs.     It 
is  also  noticeable  that  all  the  branches  lead  off  at  acute 
angles  to  the  current  of  the  Blood.     The  large  ones  take 
a  deep  course  in  the  limbs  along  the  inner  side  of  the 
bones,  always  winding  into  the  flexures  of  the  joints ; 
all  of  which  facts,  and  more,  are  admirably  illustrated 
by  Figs.  214,  215. 

942.  THE  ARTERIES  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  of  an  inner 
coat  like  that  of  the  heart  and  tfe  veins,  and  an  outer 
coat  (sometimes  subdivided)  of  sinewy  fibres,  the  inner 
part  mostly  of  the  elastic  variety,  together  with  some 
unstriated  muscular  fibrillae.     The  outer  coat  is  much 
thicker  than  that  of  the  veins ;   these  are  easily  com- 
pressed, while  the  arteries  maintain  a  cylindrical  form, 
unless  forcibly  compressed. 

943.  THE  ELASTIC  AND  MUSCULAR  STRUCTURE  OF  THE 
ARTERIES  allows  them  to  distend  when  the  Heart  forces 
the  Blood  into  them,  and,  when  its  action  intermits,  that 
of  the  arteries,  like  that  of  the  compressed  air  in  fire-en- 
gines, continues  to  propel  the  Blood  onward. 


939.  What  are  -?    940.  What  is  -?    941.  How  do  —  ?     Describe  Fig.  44. 
942.  How  are  —  ?    948.  What  the  nse  of  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    329 

944.  THE  ARRANGEMENT  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE 
ARTERIES  AFFORD  every  facility  for  the  rapid  flow  of 
Blood  in  a  concentrated  volume,  buried  where  its  warm 
current  will  be  least  exposed  to  loss  of  heat,  and  least 
likely  to  be  tapped  by  superficial  injuries ;  and  even 
when  the  arteries  are  severed  their  contraction  diminish- _ 
es  their  calibre  very  much,  and  if  the  injury  is  such  as 
to  cause  the  artery  to  be  extended,  as  is  usually  the 
case,  it  is  closed  by  that  very  action. 

945.  WHEN  AN  ARTERY,  THOUGH  NOT  VERY  LARGE, 
is  CUT,  and  not  closed  by  the  effect  of  the  injury,  its 
structure  and  use  cause  the  Blood  to  flow  in  jets,  or 
pulses,  with  serious  rapidity,  and  life  will  be  lost,  unless 
the  flow  is  speedily  stopped  by  forcible  compression. 

946.  Remark. — THE  FACT  MENTIONED  IN  ^[  945  SHOWS  the  impor- 
tance of  having  every  person  understand  the  position  of  the  large  arte- 
ries in  the  thigh  and  arm,  and  know  how  to  compress  them  at  that  point, 
for  that  cuts  off  the  flow  below.  Forcible  pressure  may  be  made  with 
the  thumb  over  the  artery  upon  the  hip-bone,  or  with  the  fingers  over 
the  artery  in  the  arm ;  or  a  bandage,  handkerchief,  or  cord,  can  be  drawn 
tightly  around  the  limb  or  twisted  tightly  by  the  aid  of  a  stick-  inserted 
beneath  it,  loosely  tied  around  the  limb ;  a  knot  may  be  made  in  the 
bandage  and  placed  over  the  artery,  or  a  smooth  stone,  a  chip,  half  an 
inch  or  more  thick,  or  a  few  pieces  of  coin,  may  be  used  to  produce 
pressure  directly  on  the  artery.  The  best  bandage  is  an  elastic  one,  like 
an  elastic  suspender,  or  ladies'  belt,  wound  tightly  several  tunes  around, 
each  turn  of  course  increasing  the  pressure.  It  is  not  best  to  stop  the  en- 
tire flow  of  Blood  ;  it  should  only  be  well  checked,  since  Blood  is  essential 
to  the  vitality  of  the  parts  immediately  around  the  wounded  part,  and  a 
little  blood  had  better  be  lost,  than  not  to  have  any  received  below  the  point 
of  pressure  upon  the  artery.  (See  Ap.  M.) 

947.  THE  ARTERIES  OPEN  INTO  the  capillaries;  their 
basement  membrane,  like  that  of  the  veins,  is  continu- 
ous with  the  walls  of  the  capillaries. 

948.  THE  USE  OF  THE  ARTERIES  is  not  only  to  lead 
the  Blood  from  the  Heart  to  the  capillaries,  but  to  assist 
in  forcing  it  along. 


944.  What  does  —  ?    945.  What  effect  —  ?    946.  What  does  —  ?    Should  blood 
be  entirely  checked  ?    94T.  —  what  ?    948.  What  is  —  ? 


330 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


949.  Remark. — In  the  same  manner  as  the  hearts  may  be  said  to 
be  a  modification  of  a  portion  of  the  veins,  so  may  the  arteries  be  said 
to  be  an  extension  of  the  heart  into  every  part  of  the  body. 


Lymphatics. 


FlG-  216- 


950.  LYMPHATICS    GENER- 
ALLY COMMENCE  as  a  network 
of  capillaries,  larger  than  those 
of  the  red  Blood,  as  represent- 
ed in  the  adjoining  cut  of  those 
of  the  skin  of  the  ear.      (See 
also  Fig.  91.)     In  the  papillae 
of   the  second   stomach  they 
commence,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
88,  as  club-shaped  tubes.     The 
form  of  the  network  differs  in 
different  kinds  of  organs. 

951.  LYMPHATIC    CAPILLA- 

RIES ARE  CONSTRUCTED  of  Walls 

more  delicate  than  even  those 
of  the  red  blood  capillaries. 
952.     THE  LYMPHATIC  TUBES  OR  VESSELS  COMMENCE 
from  the  network,  as   the   veins   do   from   theirs,   the 
membrane  of  the  capillary  walls  being  continuous  with 
the  basement  membrane  of  the  tubes,  in  which  it  is 
lined  with  cells,  and  surrounded  with  sinewy  fibres,  not, 
however,  so  thickly  as  that  of  the  veins. 
FIG.  217. 


949.  What  may  arteries  be  said  to  be!    950.  How  do  —  ?    95L  How  are  —  J 
952.  How  do  -  ?    Describe  Fig.  217. 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    331 

953.  THE  LYMPHATIC  TUBES  APPEAR  beaded  or  with 
numerous  enlargements   (B,  Fig.   2 IT),   owing  to  the 
valves  within,  as  shown  by   (7,  a  lymphatic  laid  open 
and  enlarged. 

954.  THE  LYMPHATICS  EXTEND  nearly  parallel  (See 
PI.  5*),  and  are  very  uniform  in  size,  opening  together 
without  forming  a  larger  trunk,  several  leading  into  a 
gland,  from  which  a  smaller  number  issue,  and  all  at  last 
opening  into  veins. 

955.  THE  CONTENTS  OF  THE  LYMPHATICS,  the  lymph, 
appears  like  the  watery  or  serous  part  of  the  Blood,  and 
seems  to  be  that  portion  gathered  from  the  various  tis- 
sues, into  which  it  has  passed  from  the  red  capillaries, 
and  by  which  it  has  not  been  used. 

956.  THE  USE  OF  THE  LYMPHATICS  SEEMS  TO  BE  to 
gather  the  lymph  and  pour  it  into  the  glands,  which  ap- 
pear to  have  the  office  of  originating  the  Blood-cells,  or 
the  cells  from  the  nuclei  of  which  the  Blood-cells  are 
produced. 

957.  Remark. — THE  LYMPHATICS  ABOUND  in  all  parts  of  the  body 
except  the  brain  and  nerves,  in  the  substances  of  which  they  have  not 
been  detected ;  and  this  fact  may  assist  in  determining  additional  facts 
in  regard  to  both  the  brain  and  lymphatics. 

SECTION  VH. 

Respiratory  Organs. 

958.  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS  INCLUDE  air-passages 
to  the  lungs,  the  lungs,  and  the  walls  of  the  trunk,  in- 
cluding the  diaphragm. 

959.  THE  PASSAGES  LEADING  TO  THE  LUNGS  INCLUDE 
the  nose  (and  incidentally  the  mouth),  the  pharynx,  the 
larynx,  the  trachea,  and  the  commencement  of  the  bron- 
chii. 

960.  THE  NOSTRILS  ARE  INTENDED  FOR  the  passage 


953.  How  do  —  ?    954.  How  do  —  ?  Describe  Figs.  92,  93.    955.  What  said  of  —  ? 
956.  —  what  ?  95T.  Where  do  —  ?  958.  What  do  —  ?  959.  What  do  —  ?  960.  —  what  ? 


332  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

and  wanning  of  the  air  breathed,  and  should  be  pre- 
served in  such  a  condition  that  the  air  can  pass  freely. 
They  open  into  the  front  upper  part  of  the  pharynx. 

961.  THE  PHARYNX  is  an  irregular,  cylindrical  cav- 
ity, extending  from  beneath  the  cranium  down  back  of 
the  nostrils  and  mouth,  and  upper  part  of  the  windpipe, 
where  it  is  narrowed  into  and  becomes  continuous  with 
the  oesophagus  leading  into  the  stomach. 

962.  THE  OPENINGS  OF  THE  PHARYNX  are  seven :  two 
at  its  upper  central  forward  part,  into  the  nostrils ;  two, 
one  on  each  side,  at  the  upper  back  part,  into  each  ear ; 
one  at  its  front  middle  part,  into  the  mouth ;  one  at  its 
front  lower  part,  into  the  larynx ;  and  one  directly  down- 
ward, into  the  oasophagus.     (See  Fig.  2,  PI.  30.) 

963.  To  the  upper  part  and  sides  of  the  opening 
into  the  mouth  A  CURTAIN  is  ATTACHED,  that  can  either 
be  drawn  perpendicularly  down  against  the  back  of  the 
tongue  and  close  the  opening  into  the  mouth,  or  can  be 
drawn  horizontally  across  the  pharynx  against  its  back 
part,  dividing  it  into  an  upper  third  and  lower  two 
thirds,  and  cutting  off  communication  between  the  parts 
below  it  and  the  nose  and  ears. 

964.  THE  CURTAIN  (soft  palate)  SHOULD  BE  DRAWN 
UP  when  food  or  drink  is  swallowed,  and  hang  or  be 
drawn  down  when  the  air  is  inhaled  through  the  nose, 
and  at  various  other  times,  during  sneezing,  etc. 

965.  UNDER  THE  BACK  OF  THE  TONGUE  a  cartilage  is 
situated,  against  which  the  upper  portion  of  the  larynx 
being  raised,  the  opening  into  it  is  closed,  and  the  food 
and  drink  allowed  to  pass  safely  on  into  the  oesophagus, 
the  opening  into  which  is  relaxed  at  such  times.  (PL 30.) 

966.  THE  FRAME  OF  THE  PHARYNX  is  the  base  of  the 
cranium,  the  cervical  spinal  column,  and  the  interior 
part  of  the  facium. 

967.  FROM  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  THE  FRAMEWORK  mus- 


961.  What  is  —  ?    962.  Describe  — .    963.  Where  is  —  ?    964.  When  should  —  ? 
965.  What  found  —  ?    966.  What  is  —  ?    967.  What  extend  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    333 

cles  extend  in  various  directions,  forming  the  chief  part 
of  the  immediate  walls  of  the  pharynx,  as  illustrated  by 
Figs.  5,  7,  PL  19. 

968.  THE  PHARYNX  is  LINED  with  mucous  membrane, 
continuous  with  that  of  the  nostrils,  of  the  middle  ear, 
of  the  mouth,  of  the  windpipe,  and  of  the  resophagus ; 
it  partakes  of  the  nature  of  all  those  linings,  and  is  very 
apt  to  partake,  more  or  less,  of  their  condition  in  dis- 
ease, while  its  diseases  are  liable  to  extend  to  them. 

969.  Inf. — The  physician  will  frequently  look  into  the  throat  to 
enable  him  to  judge  of  the  state  of  the  parts  with  which  its  lining  is 
continuous. 

970.  THE  LARYNX  is  a  small  part  of  the  windpipe, 
that  has  no  other  relation  to  breathing  than  has  been 
indicated  by  the  opening  and  closure  of  its  upper  orifice, 
and,  as  an  organ  of  speech,  can  best  be  described  after 
the  breathing  apparatus  has  been  constructed. 

971.  THE  TRACHEA  is  a  tube  commencing  from  the 
lower  portion  of  the  larynx,  that  is  a  complete  ring,  and 
extends  down  into  the  chest,  where  it  divides  into  two 
branches,  or  Bronchii. 

972.  THE  TRACHEA  is  constructed  of  a  framework 
of  C-shaped  cartilages,  connected  to  each  other  by  white 
sinewy  fibres,  closed  at  the  back  part  by  elastic  and  some 
muscular  fibres,  and  finished  by  a  lining  of  mucous  mem- 
brane, in  which   there  are  a  great  number  of  minute 
mucous  glands. 

973.  THE   LUNGS  are  organs  for  bringing  the   air 
and  blood  within  the  compass  of  the  action  of  each 
other;  they  are  therefore  situated  on  each  side  of  the 
heart,  and  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  air-passages. 

974.  THE  LUNGS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  (see  Fig.  218)  of 
divisions  of  the  bronchii,  4,  5 ;  of  air-cells ;  of  capilla- 
ries;  of  arteries,  13,  14;    of  veins,  17,  18,   19,  20;   of 
sinewy  tissue,  white  and  elastic  (Fig.  43),  binding  all 

968.  How  is  —  ?  969.  Why  look  into  throat  ?   970.  What  is  —  ?   971.  What  is  —  ? 
9T2.  How  is  —  constructed  ?    973.  What  are  —  ?    974.  How  are  —  ? 


334 


DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 


FIG.  218.  Fig.  218.    1, 

2,  lungs,  drawn 
aside  from  the 
hearts;  3,  the 
trachea;  4,  5, 
the  bronchii  ; 

6,  ventricle  of 
front,right,pul- 
monary,  or  res- 
piratory heart ; 

7,  its  auricle; 

8,  left,  back,  or 
systemic  heart; 

9,  10,  vena  ca- 
va,  opening  in- 
to?; 11,  aorta; 
12,  pulmonary 
or    respiratory 
artery ;  13,  14, 

its  branches;  15,  a  cord ;  16,  upper  edge  of  8;  17,  18,  19,  20,  pulmonary 
or  respiratory  veins,  opening  into  16  or  8. 

parts  together;   and  of  an  external   covering    (pleura 
pulmonaiis).     (See  Fig.  96.) 

975.  THE  BRONCHII  AEE  CONSTRUCTED  like  the  tra- 
chea, only  in  the  smaller  branches,  instead  of  one 
C-shaped  cartilage,  several  pieces  complete  the  ring,  in 
which  also  there  is  more  muscular  tissue.  The  mucous 
membrane  also  grows  thinner  as  the  air-cells  are  ap- 
proached. 

976.  AIR-CELLS  are 
an  expansion  of  the  lin- 
ing of  the  minute  bron- 
chii, its  fibrous  portion 
being  diminished  al- 
most to  nothing,  and  its 
lining  cells  also  being 
modified.  The  sides  of 
the  cells  are  saculated 
for  the  purpose  of  presenting  a  greater  extent  of  surface. 
(See  much  magnified  cells  in  adjoining  Fig.) 


FIG.  219. 


Describe  Fig.  218.    975.  How  are  —  ?    976.  What  are  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  219. 
|3ee  Fig.  94 ) 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    335 

977.  MILLIONS  OF  SUCH  CELLS  cluster  about  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  divisions  of  the  bronchii,  presenting  an 
almost  incomputable  extent  of  surface  to  favor  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air  and  blood  upon  each  other. 

978.  Inf. — With  such  an  extent  of  surface  for  the  action  of  the 
air,  it  can  hardly  be  in  the  Lungs  so  short  a  time  as  not  to  have  its  ac- 
tion complete,  and  therefore  it  should  be  at  once  thrown  out,  and  a  fresh 
portion  taken  in. 

979.  THE  PULMONARY  OR  RESPIRATORY  CAPILLARIES 
are  an  exquisitely  beautiful  network  of  the  minutest 
vessels,  the   meshes  between  which  are  less  than  the 
diameter  of  the  vessels,  existing  in  the  walls  of  the  air- 
cells,  and  in  part  forming  them.     The  appropriate  con- 
tents of  the  cells  and  of  the  capillaries  pass  through  the 
separating  membrane,  as  freely  as  if  it  were  not  there ; 
indeed,  it  appears  to  assist  the  action. 

980.  THE  ARTERIES  (pulmonary  or  respiratory)  ex- 
tend into  the  lungs  by  the  side  of  the  bronchii,  and  di- 
vide with  them,  till  they  reach  the  air-cell  or  pulmonary 
capillaries,  in  which  they  terminate. 

981.  THE  NUTRIENT  (bronchial  or  systemic)  ARTE- 
RY OF  THE  LUNG  is  another  small  artery  that  branches 
from  the  aorta,  and  extending  into  the  lung  by  the  side 
of  the  bronchus,  divides  and  subdivides  in  all  parts  of 
the  lung,  supplying  its  nutritive  wants. 

982.  Inf. — There  is  a  double  circulation  in  each  lung,  one  from  the 
right  heart  to  the  left,  very  voluminous,  and  the  other  small,  from  the 
left  to  the  right  heart. 

983.  THE  PULMONARY  OR  RESPIRATORY  VEINS  com- 
mence from  the  pulmonary  capillaries,  and  lead  back,  two 
in  number,  by  the  side  of  each  division  of  the  bronchii, 
and  pour  their  contents  into  the  left  or  systemic  heart. 

984.  Remark. — It  is  noticeable  that  while  the  systemic  arteries 
carry  bright  red,  the  pulmonary  carry  dark  red,  blood ;  and  while  the 
systemic  veins  carry  dark,  the  pulmonary  carry  bright  red,  blood.  The 

97T.  What  said  of  —  ?  978.  How  long  should  air  remain  in  a  lung  ?  9T9.  What 
are  —  ?  980.  What  said  of  —  ?  981.  What  is  —  ?  983.  What  are  —  ? 


336  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

expressions  "arterial"  and  "venous"  Blood  are  not  proper,  for  the 
character  of  the  vessel  has  nothing  to  do  with  its  contents ;  but  if  they 
are  received  with  great  force  the  vessel  must  be  an  artery ;  if  with  light 
force,  a  vein  is  sufficient.  The  vessel  receiving  blood  from  a  heart  is, 
therefore,  always  an  artery. 

985.  THE  INTERSPACES   OP  THE   BRONCHII,   BLOOD- 
TUBES  AND  CELLS  OF  THE  LUNGS  are  filled  with  the  sinewy 
tissue  necessary  in  working  them,  and  upon  the  elasticity 
of  which  the  expulsion  of  the  air  from  the  lungs  is 
chiefly  dependent. 

986.  The  sinewy  tissue  near  the  surface  of  the  lungs 
is  wrought  into  the  form  of  a  membrane,  and  covered 
with  basement  membrane,  that  is  covered  with  serous 
cells,  thus  producing  a  serous  coat,  called  pleura,  and  in 
this  position  PULMONARY  PLEURA. 

987.  THE  LUNGS  thus  constructed  MUST  BE  PLACED 
in  an  air-tight  box,  the  dimensions  of  which  can  be  en- 
larged and  diminished.     How  this  is  done  is  shown  by 
Fig.  220  and  Fig.  221. 

Fio.  220. 

Fig.  220.  1,  section  of  a  lung;  2,  the  root,  compos- 
ed of  branches  and  blood-tubes ;  6,  the  external  cover- 
ing or  pleura,  at  the  root  turning  up,  extending  out, 
passing  down  at  5,  to  turn  up  over  4  (diaphragm),  and 
again  up  to  2,  where  it  becomes  continuous  with  6.  At 
6  it  is  called  pleura  costalis,  because  against  the  ribs. 
The  two  pleurae  are  shown  to  be  merely  one  continuous 
serous  membrane.  The  lung  is  also  shown  to  be  at- 
tached only  at  its  root,  and  elsewhere  has  a  free  sur- 
face ;  not  hanging  from  its  root,  but,  filled  by  air,  is 
sustained  by  the  action  of  the  external  walls  of  the 
chest. 

Remark. — There  is  no  space  between  the  box  in  which  the  lung 
is  placed  and  its  surface.  THE  REPRESENTATION  AT  7  is  NOT  CORRECT, 
therefore,  nor  is  that  at  18,  if  the'  chest  is  entire;  but  as  soon  as  it  is 
open,  the  external  air  acts  on  the  surface  of  the  lung,  balancing  the 
internal  pressure,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs  causes  them  to  con- 
tract. The  upper  part  of  the  lung  will  then  fall  down,  and  it  will  hang 
by  its  root 


985.  What  said  of  —  ?     986.  Describe  — .     98T.  Where  must  —  ?     Describe 
Fig.  220.    983.1s—? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS    OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    337 
FlO.  221. 


Fig.  221  represents  a  cross  section  of  the  chest  and  contents,  just  above 
the  level  of  10,  semilunar  valves  of  the  heart.  1,  Body  of  vertebra ;  2,  sec- 
tion of  ribs;  3,  breast-bone ;  4,  5,  lungs;  6,  heart;  7,  P.  artery;  8,  left,  9, 
right  branch;  11,  part  of  left,  12,  part  of  right  auricle;  13,  vena  cava; 
14,  left,  15,  right  bronchus;  16,  oesophagus;  17,  aorta;  18,  cavity  between 
the  pleura,  owing  to  the  contraction  or  collapse  of  lungs,  when  the  cavity 
is  opened  and  air  admitted;  19,  pleura  (5,  Fig.  220),  applied  to  walls  of 
chest ;  20,  where  19  is  continuous  with  22 ;  23,  the  pleura  pulmonalis ;  21, 
space  called  posterior  mediastinum  ;  24  corresponds  to  20.  From  24  to  25 
the  pleura  and  heart-case  adhere  ;  26,  a  space  unduly  large,  called  anterior 
mediastinum.  Notice  also  the  two  layers  of  muscles  between  the  ribs. 

989.  THE  PLEURA  COSTALIS  AND  PULMONALIS  are,  in 
health,  constantly  moistened  with  serous  fluid,  so  that 
they  move  against  each  other  without  any  friction,  and, 
from  the  elastic  structure  of  the  lung,  only  touch  in 
the  gentlest  manner  imaginable  (except  the  lung  is 
closed) ;  and,  as  the  former  is  attached  to  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  ribs,  forming,  indeed,  av  lining  to  the  chest, 


Describe  Fig.  221.    Are  the  lungs  represented  as  full  or  empty  ?    In  the  sound 
chest  how  are  they  ?    989.  What  are  —  ? 
15 


338 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


and  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  diaphragm,  all  the 
movements  of  these  parts  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
conforming  action  of  the  lungs. 

990.  Inf. — IF  THE  WALLS  OF  THE  CHEST  AND  THE  DIAPHRAGM  ARE 
CAPACIOUS,  and  extensively  movable,  the  lungs  must  be  roomy,  and 
cause  the  action  of  a  great  quantity  of  air  upon  the  Blood,  and  vice 
versa. 


FIG.  222. 


Fio.  223. 


991.  Illus.— Fig.  222  represents  a  chest  that  is  movable,  and  can 
supply  all  the  blood  its  body  requires,  while  Fig.  223  represents  a  chest 
that  cannot  supply  the  requisite  air  to  the  body  to  which  it  belongs ;  and 
all  the  inconveniences  of  a  proper  want  of  air  must  be  experienced,  in 
ill  health,  imperfect  complexion,  deficient  expression,  and  all  the  ills 
that  life  is  heir  to. 

992.  Remark. — It  is  not  necessary  under  this  head  to  farther  refer 
to  the  walls  of  the  trunk  as  respiratory  organs. 


Digestory  Organs. 

093.     THE  DIGESTORY  ORGANS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  of 
a  digestory  canal  and  its  appendages. 


990.  What  —  ?    991.  Describe  Figs.  222,  223.    Can  the  clothing  be  tight,  and  a 
person  not  suffer?    998.  How  are  — ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO    ORGANS.    330 

994.  THE  DIGESTORY  CANAL  is  DIVISIBLE  into  the 
Mouth,  Pharynx,  CEsophagus,  Stomach,  Second  Stom- 
ach, and  Colon. 

The  Mouth. 

995.  THE  MOUTH  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  a  framework 
of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  and  the  palate-bone,  of  the 
teeth,  of  the  lips  and  cheeks,  of  the  tongue,  of  the  sali- 
vary glands,  of  the  Amygdaloid  glands,  of  the  mucous 
glands,  and  of  the  veil  of  the  palate  (soft  palate). 

996.  Remark. — THE  FORM,  SIZE,  AND  POSITION  OF  THE  JAWS  have 
been  sufficiently  well  shown,  and  may  be  reviewed  by  looking  at  the 
illustrative  figures.  The  position  of  muscles  moving  the  jaw  may  also 
be  re-examined. 

997.  IN  THE  LOWER  EDGE  OF  THE  UPPER  JAW,  AND 

IN  THE  UPPER  EDGE  OF  THE  LOWER,  sockets  are  wrought, 
the  sides  of  which  are  called  the  alveolar  processes,  that 
are  built  up  around  the  roots  of  the  teeth,  and  are  ab- 
sorbed when  the  permanent  teeth  are  removed,  dimin- 
ishing the  width  of  the  jaws  by  so  much,  and  bringing 
the  chin  and  mouth  nearer  together,  as  seen  in  old  people. 

998.  The  TEETH  IN  THE  FIRST  SET  are  20  in  number 
(Fig.  224),  succeeded  by  thirty-two  permanent  teeth:  8 
incisors,  4  canine,  8  bicuspids  (two  pointed,  pre,  or  small 
molars),  and  12  molar  or  grinding  teeth.     A  front  view 
of  one  of  each  kind  is  shown  by  Fig.  225,  and  a  side 
view  by  Fig.  226. 

999.  THE  SECOND  SET  BEGIN  TO  GROW  immediately 
after  the  first  teeth  begin  to  be  formed,  the  fangs  of 
which  usually  melt  away  to  give  place  to  the  permanent 
ones. 

1000.  Remark. — IF  THE  SECOND  TOOTH  BEGINS  TO  PUSH  OUT  BY  THE 
SIDE  OF  THE  FIRST,  the  latter  should  be  extracted  to  make  room  for  the 
former.     The  mouths  of  children  should  be  often  examined  when  the 
second  set  are  to  be  expected. 


994.  Howis— ?  995.IIowis  —  ?  996.  What  said  of-?  997.  What  is  wrought  — ? 
998.  How  many  —  ?    999.  When  do  —  ?    1000.  What  —  ? 


340 


DETAILED   SYNTHESIS- 


FIG.  225. 
1  3  4 


4  7 

1001.    THE  SECOND  SET  REQUIRE  MORE  ROOM  THAN 
THE  FIRST,  both  because  larger  and  more  numerous. 

Describe  Fig.  224.    Describe  Fig.  225.    Describe  Fig.  226.    Why  are  the  back 
molars  called  the  wisdom  teeth  ?    1001.  Do  —  ?   How  correct  irregularity  of  teeth  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    341 

Remark. — The  jaw  does  not  always  expand  as  rapidly  as  teeth  ap- 
pear, whence  they  must  be  irregular  and  crowd  upon  each  other.  This 
defect  can  be  corrected  by  pressure  on  the  teeth  when  age  has  expanded 
the  jaw ;  or,  if  it  does  not  expand  the  jaw  sufficiently,  a  tooth  can  be 
extracted  and  the  others  regulated. 

FIG.  227. 

1002.  A  TOOTH  IS  DIVISIBLE  into 

the  Crown,  or  exposed  part,  the  neck, 
or  part  covered  by  gum,  and  the  fang, 
or  part  buried  in  the  socket. 

1003.  A    SECTION    OF     A     TOOTH 

(Fig.  227)  SHOWS  that  it  is  construct- 
ed of  the  ivory  or  dentine  body,  2, 
covered  with  the  hard,  polished 
enamel,  1,  and  the  softer  cement,  4. 
The  body  contains  a  considerable 
quantity  of  pulp,  in  which  are  nu- 
merous blood-vessels  and  nerves, 
that  enter  by  the  minute  channels  in  the  fang. 
Fig.  50.) 

1 004.  TEETH  DECAY  because  constructed  of  improper 
material,  that  will  not  bear  necessary  exposure,  or  be- 
cause the  enamel  is  cracked  or  worn  through,  exposing 
the  ivory,  or  because  tartar  is  allowed  to  collect  about 
the  gums  and  become  deposited  between  them  and  the 
teeth. 

1005.  Remark. — As  THE  TEETH  ARE  FORMED  IN  INFANCY  and  youth, 
it  is  of  exceeding  importance  that  wholesome  food  should  be  taken  and 
general  health  maintained  during  that  period. 

1006.  Illus. — IF  A  CHILD  HAS  A  FEVER  DURING   CONSIDERABLE   TIME, 

the  teeth  growing  at  that  time  will  manifest  a  ridged  appearance. 

1007.  Remark. — FROM  THE  KNOWN  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  AND  COLD,  suc- 
cessively applied  to  similar  substances,  it  would  be  expected  that  any- 
thing hot  or  cold,  acting  on  the  enamel,  would  have  a  tendency  to  crack 
it;  and  sometimes  it  looks  like  a  glaze-cracked  piece  of  earthenware. 

1008.  Illus. — HOT  WATER  AFTER   COLD,  OR    COLD  WATER  AFTER   HOT, 

poured  into  a  tumbler,  will  crack  it. 


1002.  How  is  —  ?    1003.  What  does  —  ?    1004.  Why  do  —  ?    1005.  —  what  fol- 
lows ?    1006.  What  effect  —  ?    1007.  Whut  inference  —  ?    1008.  What  effect  of  —  ? 


342  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

1009.  Inf. — HOT  OR  COLD  SUBSTANCES  should  not  be  brought  in 
contact  with  the  teeth.     Children  should  be  cautioned  against  eating 
snow,  ice,  etc. 

1010.  Remark. — BITING  HARD  SUBSTANCES,  cracking  nuts,  biting 
off  thread,  untying  knots  with  the  teeth,  endanger  the  enamel. 

1011.  Remark. — In  THE  SALIVA  OF  SOME  PERSONS'  MOUTHS  the  tar- 
tar is  so  abundant  that  very  frequent  brushing  is  necessary  to  prevent 
its  deposit :  the  general  health  of  the  person  should  be  unproved,  as  it 
also  should  be  if  the  gums  are  spongy,  for  by  proper  attention  to  diet, 
etc  ,  both  evils  can  be  remedied. 

1012.  Remark. — IF  A  TOOTH  MANIFESTS  DECAY,  the  decayed  part 
should  be  thoroughly  removed  and  its  place  supplied  with  gold. 

1013.  Remark. — SOMETIMES,  WHEN  THE  TEETH  BECOME  VERY  TROU- 
BLESOME, loosened  from  their  sockets,  or  are  so  extensively  decayed,  and 
the  sockets  so  diseased,  that  they  are  extremely  painful  and  almost  un- 
endurable, perchance  exciting  neuralgia,  dyspepsia,  &c.,  it  will  be  advis- 
able to  remove  them  altogether,  and  have  a  set  of  artificial  ones  insert- 
ed, the  result  of  which  will  be  in  some  cases  a  most  extraordinary  im- 
provement in  health  and  the  enjoyment  of  life.* 

1014.     THE  USE  OF  THE  TEETH  is  to  masticate  the 
food ;  a  most  important  preparation  to  its  after-digestion. 

1015.  Illus. — It  is  very  difficult  to  fatten  animals  that  cannot  mas- 
ticate ;  and  old  people,  who  have  lost  their  teeth,  are  very  much  subject 
to  derangement  of  the  digestory  canal. 

1016.  Remark. — When  the  teeth  become  so  few  as  to  be  useless, 
or  when  gone  entirely,  their  place  should  be  supplied  by  artificial  ones, 
that  can  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose  almost  as  well  as  natural  ones. 
Many  people  would  very  much  promote  their  comfort  and  health,  and 
of  course  prolong  their  lives,  if  they  would  adopt  artificial  teeth  as  soon 
as  they  cannot  masticate  well  with  their  natural  ones. 

1017.     THE  LIPS  AND  CHEEKS  ABE  CONSTKUCTED  of 
muscles  covered  with  the  skin,  and  lined  with  the  mu- 


*  The  author  believes,  from  what  he  has  seen,  that  sets  of  teeth  upon  vulcanized 
rubber,  though  very  much  less  expensive,  are  preferable  to  those  upon  gold.  He 
has  had  the  occasion,  and  been  interested  to  notice,  several  such  made  by  Dr.  Fuller, 
a  dentist  in  his  neighborhood,  and  they  serve  their  purpose  most  admirably,  as  it 
respects  appearance,  comfort  in  wearing,  and  durability;  and  if  he  had  occasion  for 
artificial  teeth,  he  certainly  should  have  them  set  in  this  manner,  even  if  they  cost 
the  more. 


1009.  What  said  of— ?  1010.  What  said  of-?  1011.  What  said  of-?  1012.  What 
—  ?    1013.  What  to  be  done  —  ?    1014.  What  is  —  ?    101T.  How  arc  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS   OF   TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    343 

cons  membrane,  that  blends  with  the  skin  at  the  edge  of 
the  lips.  FlG.  228. 

1018.  THE   TONGUE   chiefly 
constructed  of  different  muscles, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  7,  PI.  19,  and 
Fig.  228,  is  by  some  of  them 
attached  to  the  lower  jaw,  the 
hyoid  bone,  and  the  styloid  pro- 
cess of  the  temporal  bone. 

1019.  THE  MUSCLES    FORM- 
ING  THE  TONGUE  ABE  COVERED 
by  mucous  membrane,  wrought 
into  numerous  papillae  of  three 
classes,  and  excavated  into  mu- 
cous follicles  along  the  side  of 
the  base. 

1020.  THE  SALIVARY  GLANDS  are  three  in  number, 
upon  each  side,  called  parotid,  sub-maxilary,  and  sub- 
lingual. 

1021.  THE  PAROTID  GLAND  is  the  largest  of  the  three, 
situated  and  to  be  felt  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  just  in 
front  of  the  ear.     (See  Fig.  49.)     Its  outlet  tube,  that 
may  be  felt  like  a  cord  beneath  the  skin,  leads  over  the 
masseter  muscle,  and  opens  at  a  little  eminence  percepti- 
ble at  the  centre  of  the  inside  of  the  cheek. 

1022.  THE  PAROTID  is  CONSTRUCTED,  like  any  race- 
mose gland,  of  an  immense  number1  of  minute  follicles, 
clustered  about  small  tubes,  that  all  unite  at  last  in  one 
duct  (Steno's).      The  inner  surface  of  the  pouches  and 
tubes  is  composed  of  secretory  tissue,  the  whole  inter- 
woven with  nerves  and  capillaries,  and  bound  together 
with  sinewy  tissue. 

Remark. — The  duct  (Steno's)  might  be  described  as  commencing  at 
the  inside  of  the  cheek,  and  leading  back  beneath  the  outer  skin  to 
the  angle  of  the  jaw,  where  it  divides  into  many  branches,  about  the 
twigs  of  which  many  follicles  are  clustered,  thus  forming  the  parotid. 


1018.  How  construct  —  ?    1019.  How  are  —  ?    1020.  What  said  of  —  ?    1021.  De- 
scribe — .    1022.  How  is  -  ?    How  otherwise  describe  parotid  ? 


344  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

1023.  THE  SALIVA  FORMED  BY  THE  PAROTID  is  very 
watery,  and  apparently  of  chief  use  in  moistening  the 
mouth  and  dissolving  the  masticated  food.  It  flows 
most  freely  when  the  jaws  are  active,  in  speaking,  and 
particularly  in  chewing,  etc.,  the  pressure  of  the  mus- 
cles 'being  so  many  hearts  to  move  Blood  through  the 
glands. 

1024.  Remark. — THE  PAROTID  GLAND,  IN  A  MOST  REMARKABLE  MAN- 
NER, SHOWS  the  influence  of  the  mind  upon  secretion,  since  the  mere 
thinking  of  desired  food  makes  the  mouth  water,  and  the  relish  of  food ' 
increases  the  flow  of  the  saliva,  useful  hi  digesting  it. 

1025.  Inf. — A  GOOD  APPETITE,  desired  and  well-chewed  food,  are 
great  promoters  of  digestion,  by  reason  of  the  increased  flow  of  saliva 
they  cause. 

1026.  THE  SUB-MAXTLLAKY  GLAND  («,  Fig.  50)  is  a 
small  racemose  organ  beneath  the  side  of  the  tongue, 
constructed  much  like  the  parotid  on  a  small  scale,  yet 
differing  from  it  somewhat.     A  small  duct  from  it  opens 
beneath  the  bridle  of  the  tongue. 

1027.  THE  FLUID  OF  THE  SUB-MAXILLARY  is  more 
viscid  than  that  of  the  parotid,  and  flows  chiefly  while 
eating,  seeming  to  be  of  especial  use  in  digesting  food. 

1028.  THE  SUB-LINGUAL  is  the  smallest  of  the  three, 
lies  under  the  side  of  the  front  part  of  the  tongue,  pours 
out  its  fluid  through  several  minute  tubes,  and  seems  to 
merely  another  sub-maxillary.    (#,  Fig.  50). 

1029.  THE  AMYGDALOID  GLANDS,  or  tonsils,  are  two 
almond-shaped  bodies,  situated  in  each  side  of  the  back 
part  of  the  mouth.     They  exhibit   many  pits,  in  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  which  mucous  glands  open.     Thus 
the  Amygdaloid  are  merely  clusters  of  mucous  glands. 
(PI.  30.) 

1030.  THE  USE  OF  THE  TONSILS  is  to  pour  out  mucus 
and  lubricate  the  food  forced  between  them  as  it  is  being 
swallowed. 


1023.  What  is  —  ?    1024.  What  does  —  ?    102C.  What  is  —  ?    1027.  What  said 
of—?    1028.  What  is  —  ?    1029.  What  are  —  ?    1080.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    345 

1031.  Remark. — The  tonsils  are  very  apt  to  swell  and  be  trouble- 
some, being  sore  to  the  touch  externally,  and  partially  closing  the  pass- 
ages within.  In  the  latter  case,  if  the  trouble  becomes  permanent,  a 
portion  of  them  can  be  removed  by  a  very  simple  operation. 

1032.  THE  MUCOUS   GLANDS   OK  FOLLICLES   of  the 
mouth  are  very  numerous,  and  scattered  throughout  its 
lining ;  they  are  also  clustered  as  described  abdve. 

1033.  THE  VEIL  OF  THE  PALATE,  or  soft  palate,  is  an 
extension  from  the  hard  palate,  constructed  mostly  -of 
muscles,  lined  below  and  above,  or  before  and  behind, 
by  the  lining  of  the  mouth  and  nose,  and  in  the  centre 
exhibiting  a  dependent  point,  called  the  uvula. 

1034.  THE  USE  OF  THE  SOFT  PALATE  is  to  close  the 
communication  between  the  upper  and  the  middle  part 
of  the  pharynx,  or  between  the  mouth  and  the  pharynx. 

Pharynx. 

1035.   Remark. — The  pharynx  has  already  been  described.   fl[  961.) 

(Esophagus. 

1036.  THE  (ESOPHAGUS  is  merely  a  distensible,  con- 
tractile tube,  extending  from  the  pharynx  downward  in 
front  of  the  spinal  column  nearly,  to  the  diaphragm, 
when  it  turns  slightly  forward  and  to  the  left  through 
the  cesophageal  opening  in  the  diaphragm  (13,  Fig.  181), 
and  connects  with  the  stomach.     (See  Fig.  TO.) 

1037.  THE  CESOPHAGUS  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  annular 
and  longitudinal  muscular  fasciculi  (see  Fig.  79),  and 
lined  with  an  extension  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
pharynx  and  stomach. 

1038.  Remark. — The  muscular  rings  at  the  lower  part  of  the  oeso- 
phagus are  somewhat  stronger  than  those  above. 

1039.  THE  USE  OF  THE  (ESOPHAGUS  is  to  receive  food 
from  the  pharynx  and  force  it  into  the  stomach.  For 


1031.  If  tonsils  are  troublesome?    1032.  What  said  of  —  ?    1033.  What  is—? 
1034.  What  is  -?    1035.  Describe  pharynx.    1036.  What  is  -?    103T.  How  is  —  ? 
15* 


346 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


this  purpose  the  rings  in  front  of,  and  embracing,  sub- 
stances swallowed,  relax,  and  those  behind  them  contract. 

1040.  Remark. — It  is  noticeable  that  substances  do  not  fall  from 
the  mouth  into  the  pharynx,  nor  from  it  into  the  stomach. 

1041.  Illus. — When  a  horse  drinks  water  it  may  be  noticed  rising 
along  his  neck. 

1042.  -Remark. — Sometimes  the  muscular  rings  contract  upon  the 
food  passing  through  them,  and  detain  it ;  this  is  painful,  and  particu- 
larly unfortunate  when  it  takes  place  at  the  upper  part ;  for  at  this  in- 
stant the  windpipe  is  raised,  and  its  orifice  into  the  pharynx  is  closed, 
admitting  no  air  to  the  lungs.     The  food  must  be  removed  before  the 
passage  of  air  will  be  allowed ;  hence  continued  choking  soon  causes 
death.    Push  the  food  down  if  it  cannot  be  withdrawn.    Action  must  be 
speedy :  if  consciousness  is  lost,  proceed  as  in  drowning.    (See  Ap.  0.) 

Stomach. 

1043.  THE  STOMACH  is  one  of  the  simplest  organs 
in  the  body,  being  merely  a  distension  of  the  oesophagus 
as  soon  as  it  has  descended  through  the  diaphragm,  hav- 
ing a  few  modifications  easily  comprehended.  (See  Fig. 
70.) 

FIG.  229. 


Fig.  229  represents,  3, 
3,  the  upper  inner  surface 
of  the  distended  stomach, 
a  section  of  it  being  made 
through  the  smaller  ex- 
tremity.  1,  under  surface 
of  liver ;  2,  gall-bladder ;  4, 
oesophageal  orifice ;  5,  py- 
loric  orifice;  6,  the  thick 
muscle  around  5  ;  7,  Sec- 
ond Stomach. 


1044.  THE  LINING  OR  MUCOUS  MEMBRANE  OF  THE 
(ESOPHAGUS  becomes  thicker  as  it  enters  the  stomach, 
and  is  wrought  into  minute  papillae,  like  the  piles  of 
velvet,  giving  the  inner  surface  of  the  stomach  a  very 
delicate  velvety  appearance. 


1040.  What  noticeable  ?    1041.  I  lias.    1042.  What  causes  choking  ?    1048.  What 
is  -?    Describe  Fig.  229.    1044.  What  said  of  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    347 

1045.  THE  CAPILLARIES  of  the  membrane  here  are 
very  much  increased  in  number,  giving  the  beautiful 
appearance  of  the  blush  of  the  peach  to  the  inner  surface 
of  the  stomach  when  digestion  is  taking  place. 

1046.  BETWEEN  THE  PAPILLAE  the  minute  mouths 
of  two  kinds  of  glands  ARE  FOUND,  one   the   mucous 
gland  of  the  stomach,  the  other  the  gastric  glands. 

1047.  THE  GASTRIC  GLANDS,  almost  FlG-  23°- 
infinite    in    number,    are    exceedingly 

small,  straight  tubes  of  basement  mem- 
brane, lined  with  cells,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  230,  the  right-hand  tube  being 
healthy  and  the  other  deranged. 

1048.  THE   CELLS   OF  THE  GASTRIC 
GLANDS   are  very   rapidly  produced  at   &•" 
the  commencement  of  the  digestive  pro- 
cess, and,  charged  with  their  important  ai 
contents,  move   out  into   the  stomach, 
dissolving  there,  or  on  their  way,  and 
yielding  the  important  digestory  fluid0''' 
to  the  food  in  the  stomach. 

1049.  THE  FLUID  SECRETED  BY  THE 

CELLS  is  called  gastric  juice,  its  most  important  compo- 
nent having  the  name  of  pepsin. 

1050.  UPON    THE    HEALTHFUL    CHARACTERISTICS  AND 

ABUNDANT  FLOW  OF  THE  GASTRIC  JUICE  depends,  in  a 
great  degree,  the  first  process  of  digestion. 

1051.  THE  GASTRIC  JUICE  does  not  FLOW  constantly, 
but  when  required  food  is  taken,  or  even  thought  of,  if 
very  necessary,  the  juice  starts  and  continues  to  flow 
from  a  few  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  according  to  the  ne- 
cessities of  the  body  and  the  quantity  of  food  taken. 

1052.  Remark. — The  gastric  juice  gushes  freely,  if  much  food  is 
required ;  but  if  only  a  little  food  is  taken,  the  juice  soon  ceases  to  flow, 
while,  if  unnecessary  food  is  eaten,  the  juice  does  not  flow  at  all ;  or,  if 

1045.  Describe  — .  1046.  What  —  ?  1047.  What  are  —  ?  1048.  What  said  of  —  ? 
1049.  What  of  —  ?  1050.  What  depends  —  ?  1051.  When  does  —  ? 


348  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

more  food  is  taken  than  is  needed,  only  the  quantity  of  juice  requisite 
to  digest  a  proper  quantity  of  food  will  appear. 

1053.  THIS  FLUID,  most  extraordinary  in  its  modes 
of  appearing,  and  in  its  actions  upon  food,  has  a  very 
simple,  watery  appearance,  without  anything  very  pecu- 
liar in  its  taste  or  smell,  yet  it  defies  the  arts  of  the  most 
subtle  chemistry  to  produce  its  like ;  it  must  be  secreted. 

1054.  To    SECRETE    HEALTHY    GASTRIC    JUICE,    (l)    a 

healthy  condition  of  the  secretory  tissue  of  the  gastric 
glands,  (2)  good  blood,  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  (3) 
an  efficient  nervous  influence,  ARE  REQUIRED. 

1055.  TO    MINGLE    THE    JUICE    WITH    THE    FOOD,    the 

7 

alternate  action  of  the  muscular  fasciculi  (see  Fig.  80) 
of  the  stomach  is  required. 

1056.  WHEN  REQUIRED  FOOD  is  EATEN,  three  things 
will  be  at  once  noticed  in  the  passive  stomach  :  it  will  be 
gradually  distended ;  the  juice  will  begin  to  start ;  the 
color  of  the  inner  surface  will   redden,  and   the  large 
extremity  begin  to  slowly  contract,  after  which  it  will 
relax,  and  the  smaller  extremity  begin  to  contract.    The 
three  actions  will  become  more  and  more  conspicuous, 
till  a  sufficient  quantity  of  juice  is  secreted,  when   it 
will  no  longer  flow ;  the  color  will  fade,  but  the  motions 
will  become  more  rapid. 

1057.  As  THE  FOOD  IS  MOVED  ABOUT  IN  THE  STOMACH, 

little  by  little,  it  is  thoroughly  acted  on  by  the  gastric 
juice  and  dissolved,  a  part  vanishing  from  the  stomach  by 
passing  into  its  blood-vessels,  and  the  remainder  going 
on  into  the  second  stomach,  to  undergo  further  process 
there,  the  stomach  gradually  diminishing  in  size  till  its 
contents  are  all  evacuated,  when  it  becomes  again  passive. 

1058.  THE  TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  FOOD  TO  BE  DIGEST- 
ED in  the  Stomach  varies  with  the  kind  of  food,  its 
method  of  preparation,  its  mastication,  the  requirement 
for  food,  the  quantity  taken,  the  health  of  the  stomach, 


1058.  How  produce— ?    1054.  What— ?    1055.  What  required  — ?    1056.  What 
noticeable  -  ?    1057.  What  occurs  -  ?    1058.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    349 

the   blood,   the   nervous  system,  and  the   state  of  the 
mind. 

1059.  SOME  KINDS  OF  FOOD  are  much  more  easily 
digested  than  others,  and  some  kinds  are  digested  by  one 
person  that  are  not  by  another.  The  accompanying  table, 
from  Dr.  Beaumont,  illustrates  the  first-mentioned  fact. 

TABLE, 

EXHIBITING  THE  AVERAGE  TIME  OF  DIGESTION   OF  CERTAIN  ARTICLES  OF  DIET. 


Article*. 

Prepara- 
tion. 

Time 

Articles. 

Prepara- 
tion. 

Time 

Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Fried, 
Broiled, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
Raw, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
BJ  oiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 
Roasted, 
Roasted, 
Boiled, 
Roasted, 
Baked, 
Roasted, 
Boiled, 

Warmed, 

Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Baked, 
Raw, 
Boiled, 
Fricas'd, 
Baked, 
Raw, 
Raw, 
Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Broiled, 
Baked, 
Boiled, 
Boiled 
soft, 
Broiled, 
Boiled, 
Raw, 

h.  m. 

1 

30 
30 
30 
30 
35 
45 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2  15 
2  15 
2  18 
2  25 
2  80 
2  30 
2  30 
2  30 

2  30 

2  30 
2  30 
2  30 
2  30 
2  30 
2  45 
2  45 
2  50 
2  55 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

3 

3 
3 
3 

Pork                         

Stewed, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Broiled, 
Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Roasted, 
Baked,    - 
Boiled, 
Broiled, 
Roasted, 
Baked, 
Melted, 
Fried, 
Raw, 
Boiled 
hard, 
Fried, 
Fried, 
Stewed, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 

Boiled, 

Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Fried, 
Roasted, 
Boiled, 
Roasted, 
Boiled, 

Boiled, 

Broiled, 
Fried, 
Boiled, 
Boiled, 
Roasted, 
Boiled, 
Fried, 
Roasted, 
Boiled, 

h.m, 
3 
3 
3 
310 
3  15 
3  15 
3  15 
3  15 
3  15 
3  15 
3  20 
3  30 
3  30 
3  30 
3  30 
3  30 

330 

3  30 
3  30 
3  30 
3  30 
3  30 
3  30 
3  30 

3  36 

345 
3  45 

4 

4 
4  15 
4  15 
4  30 
4  30 
4  30 
4  30 
5  15 
5  30 

Eice 

'Beef,  with  mustard.... 
Pork  steak 

Trout,  salmon,  fresh.. 

Pork,  recently  salted... 

Sago                  

Apples,  sour,  mellow.. 
Cabbage  and  vinegar.  . 
Codfish,  cured,  dry.  .  .  . 

Pausage  

Beef,  frepl'.  lean,  dry... 
Bread,  whent,  fresh.... 

Liver,  beef's,  fresh  
•  Milk 

Cheese,  old,  strong  

Milk  

Eggs  
Turkey,  wild  

T>                         T    '    "K 

Pi? 

Meat,  hashed  with  (' 
vegetables          j  "  * 
Lamb,  fresh  

Beef,  fre'sb,  lean,  with  | 
salt  only                  J 
Corn,  green,  and  beans. 

Goose                         .  . 

iBeef,  fresh,  lean  

Beans  pod               .... 

Ducks,  domesticated... 
Fowl,  domestic  

Chicken,  full-grown  .  .  . 

Apples,  sour,  hard.... 
Oysters  fresh 

Soup,  beef,  vegetables  | 
and  bread                j 

Bass,  striped,  fresh.  .  .  . 
Beef,  fresh,  lean,  rare. 
—   gteak 

Pork,  recently  salted... 
Beef,  old,  hard,  palted.. 

Corn  cake          

Dumpling,  apple  
Eggs,  fresh  -1 

Ducks    wild            

Pork,  fat  and  lean  

Pork,  recently  salted.. 

1059.  "What  said  of  —  ?    Mention  the  kinds  of  food  digested  most  easily;  with 
most  difficulty,  etc. 


350  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

1060.  SOME  METHODS  OF  COOKING  hasten  and  others 
delay  or  altogether  prevent  digestion.     Frying  meats  is 
not  as  wholesome  a  mode  of  cooking  as  broiling.     (See 
Dr.  Beaumont's  Table.) 

1061.  FOOD  NOT  PROPERLY  MASTICATED  cannot  be 
readily  digested,  because  it  is  not  sufficiently  comminuted 
nor  mixed  with  sufficient  gastric  juice. 

1062.  IF    FOOD    IS    EATEN    WHEN    NOT    REQUIRED,  it 

does  not  remain  harmless  in  the  stomach  until  required, 
but  begins  to  ferment  and  provoke  disorder.  Food 
should  not  be  eaten  in  advance  of  appetite. 

1063.  IF  MORE  FOOD  IS  EATEN  THAN  IS  REQUIRED,  it 

retards  the  digestion  of  that  which  is  needed.  Food 
should  not  be  eaten  beyond  the  point  of  satisfying  the 
appetite.  When  all  parts  say  enough,  and  there  is  a 
complete  tranquillity  of  the  body  produced,  eating  should 
be  stayed. 

1064.  Many  times   THE   HEALTH   OF  THE   GASTRIC 
GLANDS  is  such  that  but  a  small  portion  of  food  can  be 
digested,  or,  perhaps,  none  at  all,  when  it  is  really  need- 
ed by  the  body.     Appetite  will  not  at  such  times  usual- 
ly exist ;  if  it  does  it  must  not  be  gratified,  since  rest  is 
essential  to  allow  the  gastric  glands  to  recover  their 
healthy  condition.     To  force  digestion  is  only  to  make  a 
bad  matter  worse. 

1065.  Remark. — When  digestion  cannot  take  place  the  body  must 
be  so  adjusted,  as  far  as  possible,  as  not  to  require  the  results  of  diges- 
tion ;  viz.,  it  must  rest  and  be  kept  warm. 

1066.  IF  THE  BLOOD  is  BAD,  good  gastric  juice 
cannot  of  course  be  formed ;  hence  it  is  important  to 
digestion  that  the  respiratory  organs  should  be  movea- 
ble  and  well  supplied  with  pure  air.  Tight  dressing 
and  bad  ventilation  are  always  productive  of  deranged 
digestion. 


1060.  What  said  of  —  ?    1061.  What  said  of-?  1062.  What  —  ?  1063.  What  -  ? 
1064.  What  said  of  —  ?    106&  What  if  digestion  is  impossible?    1066.  What  if  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    351 
FIG.  231.  FIG.  232. 


Fig.  231  shows  how,  by  improper  position,  the  digestory  organs  are  di- 
rectly compressed,  and  indirectly  suffer  for  want  of  pure  air  that  cannot 
be  freely  inhaled;  while  Fig.  232  shows  a  proper  position.  The  first  will 
be  soon  broken  down,  while  the  second  will  improve  in  health  by  a  rea- 
sonable amount  of  such  exercise.  When  the  work  or  reading  cannot  be 
seen  on  account  of  near-sightedness,  glasses  should  be  worn,  to  obviate  the 
necessity  of  curving  over  the  work;  or  it  should  be  raised  to  a  convenient 
seeing  distance. 

1067.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  BLOOD  MUST  BE 

SUPPLIED  TO  THE  STOMACH  IN  LARGE  QUANTITIES    during 

the  formation  of  the  gastric  juice ;  hence,  no  violent  or 
engrossing  exercise,  muscular  or  nervous,  ought  to  be 
engaged  in  immediately  after  eating. 

1068.  THE    EXHAUSTION    OF  THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM 
by   severe   labor   or   mental   application    prevents    the 
formation  of  gastric  juice,  and  rest  must  be  taken  be- 
fore eating  in  such  cases. 

1069.  Remark. — ON  THK  OTHER  HAND  IT  WILL  BE  SOMETIMES  FOUND 
that  nervous  exhaustion  arises  from  want  of  food  of  the  right  kind :  in 
fact,  this  is  frequently  the  case  with  those  who  are  called  upon  to  make 
powerful  or  continued  mental  effort,  and  they  require  a  more  generous 
diet,  or  one  well  adapted  to  nourish  the  nervous  tissues.  It  is  not  every 
man  who  can  digest  out  of  ordinary  food  the  amount  of  nutrition  neces- 
sary to  supply  an  active  brain.  In  this  case  he  must  select  brainial 
food. 


Describe  Fig.  231.    Describe  Fig.  232.    1067.  Why  must  —  ?    1068.  What  said 
of  —  ?    1069.  What— ? 


352  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

1070.  Nothing  is  more  easily  observable  than  that 
the  state  of  THE  MIND  INFLUENCES  DIGESTION  ;  pleasant 
emotions,  a  relish  of  food,  and  an  undistracted,  unbur- 
dened mind  facilitate  digestion,  while  gloom,  depres- 
sion, anger,  nervousness,  and  anxiety  heavily  impede  it. 

1071.  Remark. — It  MAY  BE   THOUGHT  IMPOSSIBLE  to  know  what 
takes  place  in  the  stomach  during  digestion.     In  the  year  1822,  in  the 
State  of  Michigan,  a  young  man  named  St.  Martin,  serving  in  our  army, 
was  injured  by  the  accidental  discharge  of  a  gun,  the  muzzle  of  which 
was  about  a  yard  from  his  body.    The  buckshot  tore  open  his  side,  lacer- 
ating his  lung  and  stomach.     He  fell  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  Beaumont, 
by  whose  aid  he  recovered,  leaving,  however,  an  irregular  opening  into 
his  stomach,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  that  adhered  to  his 
side  in  such  a  manner  that  food  could  be  put  into  or  taken  out  of  the 
stomach,  and  the  organ  examined  under  various  circumstances.     He 
lived  with  Dr.  B.  two  years,  whose  account  of  the  case  is  deeply  inter- 
esting and  profitable.     St.  Martin,  however,  fearing  the  experiments 
would  affect  his  health,  plunged  into  the  depths  of  Canada,  and  was  lost 
sight  of  till  the  railroads  brought  him  to  light  a  few  years  since,  when  he 
was  alive  and  well,  and  went  to  Europe  to  exhibit  himself,  the  aperture 
never  having  closed. 

1072.  Remark. — DR.  BEAUMONT  MADE  only  a  series  of  physical  ob- 
servations and  experiments,  yet  he  conclusively  determined  many  impor- 
tant facts :  that  different  substances,  and  different  methods  of  cooking 
them,  require  different  times  for  digestion;  that  partially  masticated 
food  is  tedious  in  digesting,  and  often  irritates  and  inflames  the  stomach ; 
that,  indeed,  thorough  mastication  is  one  of  the  most  important  steps 
toward  health  ;  that  food  not  needed  is  not  digested,  and  soon  deranges 
the  stomach ;   that  a  hearty  appetite  and  moderate  distension  of  the 
stomach,  combined,  favor  digestion ;  that  moderate  exercise  facilitates 
digestion,  while  active  exercise  of  either  muscles  or  brain  as  surely  re- 
tards it ;  that  sleep  immediately  after  eating  is  not  advantageous ;  that 
ill-temper  or  other  ill   dispositions  check  the  entire  digestory  action, 
which,  after  a  time,  goes  on  again,  but  not  perfectly ;  that  too  much 
liquid  with  food  retards  digestion ;  that  the  frequent  use  of  alcoholics, 
wine,  cider,  etc.,  invariably  inflames  the  stomach  ;  that  the  stomach  is 
not  sensitive  when  touched,  and  may  even  be  so  diseased  as  to  bleed 
without  exciting  pain !    Other  experiments  and  observations  upon  man 
and  animals,  since  those  of  Dr.  B.,  have  also  still  further  and  more 
clearly  shown  the  true  nature  and  use  of  the  first  process  of  digestion. 

1070.  Does  —  ?    1071.  What  -?     Describe  the  case  of  St  Martin.    1072.  — 
what?    How  many  points  did  bo  dfterminc  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.  353 

1073.  THE  USE  OF  THE  PEOCESS  TAKING  PLACE  IN 
THE  FIKST  STOMACH  is  to  dissolve  the  food  and  allow  the 
fat  and  starch  to  pass  on  into  the  Second  Stomach ;  to 
set  at  liberty  any  sugar  and  gum  the  food  contains,  either 
to  pass  into  the  blood-vessels  of  the  stomach  or  to  go 
on  into  the  second  stomach ;   to  dissolve  the  gelatine, 
and  change  it  in  some  manner  not  yet  understood ;  to 
liberate  the  albuminous  portions  of  food,  and  change 
them  into  albuminose,  ready  for  nutritious  purposes. 

1074.  The  distension  of  the  Stomach  by  food,  and 
its  contraction  into  a  small  space  when  empty,  as  well  as 
its  motions,  require  that  THE  STOMACH  SHOULD  HAVE  AN 
EXTEENAL  FEEE  SUEFACE  moving  without  friction  against 
surrounding  parts. 

1075.  THE  EXTEENAL  SUEFACE  OF  THE  STOMACH  is 
serous  membrane,  pearl-colored,  smooth,  and  moistened 
with  the  glairy  serum. 

1076.  THE  STOMACH  is  THEEEFOEE  SAID  TO  BE  CON- 
STEUCTED  of  three  coats,  mucous,  muscular,  and  serous ; 
or  it  may  be  described  as  constructed  of  sinewy  tissue, 
differently  wrought  in  different  parts  of  its  thickness, 
with  muscular  fasciculi  in  the  centre  and  blood-vessels, 
lymphatics,  and  nerves  throughout,  lined  with  basement 
membrane  and  mucous  and  gastric  cells,  and  covered 
with  basement  membrane  and  serous  cells. 

1077.  THE  SEEOUS  MEMBEANE  OF  THE  STOMACH  ex- 
tends upward  from  each  side  of  its  smaller  curvature  to- 
ward the  liver,  forming  a  ligament  to  sustain  the  stomach, 
as  seen  at  4,  Fig.  233,  while  at  the  larger  curvature  the  se- 
rous membrane  from  each  side  (5)  extends  down  like  an 
apron  (Omentum,  caul)  in  front  of  the  organs  below,  in 
which  omentum  an  abundance  of  fat  is  netted  most  beau- 
tifully (see  Fig.  234).     It  is  used  by  butchers  to  improve 
the  appearance  of  their  meat,  that  taken  from  a  fat  crea- 
ture being  spread  upon  the  quarters  of  a  lean  one. 


1073.  What  is  —  ?    Write  the  uses  in  tabular  form.      1074.  Why  should  —  ? 
1075.  Describe  — .    1076.  How  is  —  ?    1077.  Trace  — . 


35  i 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


Fig    -233.      THE  SEROUS 

MEMBRANE   OF   THE   STOMACH 

CAN  BE  TRACED  up  at  4,  then 
forward  under  the  liver,  L, 
up  over  it  to  3,  where  it 
passes  to  the  under  surface 
of  the  diaphragm,  D  ,  from 
the  front  part  of  which  it 
extends  down,  forming  the 
inner  sdrface  of  the  walls  of 
the  abdomen,  and  is  there 
called  peritoneum.  From  5, 
the  serous  membrane  of  the 
front  part  of  the  stomach 
extends  down,  as  seen,  turns 
up,  passes  to  the  under  part 
of  C,  colon,  the  surface  of 
which  it  forms,  then  ex- 
tends to  the  duodenum,  D, 
turning  down  at  10  from 

* 


tend  to  I,  small  intestine. 
the  external  coat  of  which  it  forms,  and  extends  up  back,  adhering 
throughout  to  11,  thus  forming  what  is  called  a  mesentery,  in  the  midst 
of  which  blood-vessels,  lacteals,  and  nerves  are  found  connecting  with  the 
second  stomach.  Again,  at  5,  the  serous  membrane  from  the  jack  of  the 
stomach  extends  down  to  6,  adhering  all  the  way  to  the  layer  from  the 
front  of  the  stomach  ;  it  turns  up,  dividing  at  C,  the  colon,  to  form  its 
front  and  upper  surface,  a  part  of  its  mesentery,  at  7,  a  small  portion  of 
D,  binding  down  the  pancreas  P,  and  so  on  around  to  L,  and  down  to  S, 
the  starting-point. 


Second  Stomach. 

1078.     The  food,  having  been  dissolved,  and  its  sev- 
eral varieties  set  at  liberty  in  the  first  stomach,  THE 

PASTY    MASS,    CALLED    CHYME,    IS   READY  TO   RECEIVE    the 

influence  of  different  fluids  adapted  to  act  upon  each 
variety  and  prepare  it  to  pass  into  the  Blood,  while  a 
great  extent  of  surface  is  necessary  in  order  that  every 
particle  of  useful  substance  may  be  abstracted. 


Describe  Fiz.  233.    Are  the  contents  of  the  abdomen  attached  to  itsfront  walls? 
Do  the  contents  in  reality  perfectly  fill  the  walls ?    1078.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    355 


/4s 


Fig.  234.  1, 
flaps  of  front  walls 
of  abdomen;  letters 
and  straight  lines 
indicate  regions 
arbitrarily  made 
for  convenience  in 
describing  posi- 
tions of  organs. 
a,  epigastric,  b, 
hypochondriac,  c, 
umbilical,  d,  lum- 
bar, e,  hypogas- 
tric,  /,  iliac  re- 
gions. 2,  3,  lobes 
of  liver;  4,  gall- 
bladder ;  5,  round 
ligament ;  6,  part 
of  suspensory  lig- 
ament ;  7,  8,  sto- 
mach ;  9,  duode- 
num ;  10,  spleen ; 
11,  great  omen- 
turn  ;  12,  small  in- 
testine ;  13,  coe- 

cum ;  14,  vermiform  appendage;  15,  ascending,  16,  transverse,  17,  de- 
scending, 18,  sigmoid  colon  ;  19,  epiploic  appendages  ;  21,  points  to  lower 
edge  of  diaphragm. 

1079.  THE  SECOND  STOMACH  AND  ITS  APPENDAGES 
ARE  PERFECTLY  ADAPTED  to  the  farther  preparation  of 
the  food,  and  the  taking  from  it  of  everything  valuable. 

1 080.  THE  SECOND  STOMACH  is  a  narrowed  or  tubular 
extension  of  the  Stomach,  averaging  twenty-five  feet  in 
length,  (sometimes  as  short  as  five,  and  as  long  as  thirty- 
four,)  and  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter. 

1081.  THE  SECOND  STOMACH  is  CONSTRUCTED,  like 
the  Stomach,  of  three  coats,  except  that  the  serous  is 
wanting  at  points  (see  D,  Fig.  233).     The  mucous  coat 
being  modified  into  folds  (valvulse  conniventes),  as  seen 
in  plate  29,  its  internal  surface  is  immensely  increased. 

1082.  THE  SECOND  STOMACH  is  DIVIDED  nominally 


Describe  Fig.  234.     Locate  the  organs  in  each  region.    1079.  To  what  are  —  ? 
1080.  What  is  —  ?    1081.  How  is— ?    1082.  How  is  —  ? 


356 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


FIG.  235. 


Fig.  235,  plan  of  dis- 
tended digestory  canal, 
from  oesophagus,  6,  7,  to 
rectum,  36 ;  8,  opening 
into  distended  stomach  ; 
9,  back  inner  surface ;  10, 
left  or  large  extremity  ; 
11,  small  extremity;  12, 
larger,  13,  lesser  curva- 
ture; 14,  pylorus  con- 
tracted ;  15,  ascending, 
16,  descending,  17,  trans- 
verse, duodenum ;  18, 
gall-bladder;  19,  duct; 
20,  duct  from  liver;  21, 
duct  in  common;  22, 
opening  of  21 ;  and  23, 
duct  of  pancreas;  24, 
curvature  forward  of  du- 
odenum ;  25,  jejunum ; 
26,  ileum  ;  27,  ileum  slit- 
ted,  and  opening,  at  28, 
into  colon;  29,  fold-like 
valve;  30,  coecum;  31, 
vermiform  appendage ; 
32,  ascending,  33,  trans- 
verse, 34,  descending,  35, 
sigmoid,  36,  rectal  colon. 
The  jejunum  and  ileum 
do  not  pass  directly  nor  so 
many  times  from  side  to 
side,  as  shown.  (Fig.  100.) 


into  the  duodenum,  about  twelve  finger-breadths  long, 
as  its  name  signifies ;  the  jejunum,  or  empty,  about  ten 
feet,  and  the  ileum  about  fifteen  feet,  long. 

1083.  THE  DUODENUM  extends  upward  and  back- 
ward toward  the  liver,  turns  down,  and  then,  deeply 
situated   (see  Fig.   233),  crosses  to  the  left  side,  near 
which  it  extends  forward. 

1084.  THE  APPENDAGES  OF  THE  DUODENUM  are  the 
pancreas,  Brunner's,  Lieberkuhn's,  and  Peyer's  glands, 
the  liver,  and  gall-bladder. 


Describe   Fig.  285.     Describe  Fig.  100.     1088.  Describe  the  coarse  of  -. 
1084.  What  are—  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    357 
FlG.  236. 


Fig.  236.  1,  liver,  turned  up;  2,  its  fissure;  3,  gall-bladder;  4,  sto- 
mach; 5,  oesophagus ;  6,  pylorus;  7,  descending,  8,  transverse  duodenum ; 
9,  pancreas ;  10,  spleen ;  11  to  24,  arteries. 

Pancreatic,  Urunner's,  Lieberkuhrfs,  and 
Peyer's  Glands. 

1085.  THE  PANCREAS  is  an  oblong  racemose  gland 
(Figs.  101,  102),  constructed  of  sinewy,  secretory,  and 
nervous  tissue,  situated  above  the  transverse  duodenum, 
and  opening  into  it. 

1086.  THE  USE  OF  THE  PANCREAS  is  to  secrete  a 
fluid  called  pancreatic  juice,  having  the  general  appear- 
ance of  saliva. 

1087.  THE  USE  OF  THE  PANCREATIC  JUICE  is  to  form 
an  emulsion  with  fat,  and  thereby  enable  it  to  enter  and 
mingle  with  the  blood,  which  alone  it  could  not  do. 

1088.  BRUNNER'S    GLANDS    are    minute    racemose 
glands  in  the  walls  of  the  duodenum,  apparently  of  the 
same  character  as  the  pancreas,  and  secreting  the  same 
kind  of  fluid. 


Describe  Fig.  236.    Do  the  arteries  branch  off  singly  or  double  ?    1085.  What  is 
—  ?    1086.  What  is  —  ?    1087.  What  is  —  ?    1088.  What  are  —  ? 


358  DETAILED   STNTHESIS. 

1089.  LIEBERKUHN'S  GLANDS,  called  also  the  tubular 
glands,  are  minute  straight  tubes,  in  immense  numbers, 
throughout  the  Second  Stomach,  lined  with  cells  (see 
Plate  29)  that  secrete  and  pour  into  the  intestinal  canal 
a  fluid  called  intestinal  juice. 

1090.  THE  USE  OF  THE  INTESTINAL  JUICE  appears  to 
be  to  change  starch  into  sugar,  in  which  condition  this 
calorific  element  can  pass  into  the  Blood. 

FIG.  237.  1091.      STARCH    KERNELS     (Fig. 

237,  magnified)  are  too  large  to  pass 
into  the  Blood,  and  if  they  did  would 
delay  its  circulation  in  the  capillaries : 
hence,  starch  must  undergo  a  trans- 
formation; if  in  the  body,  vital  pow- 
er will  be  required.  Any  process  of 
cooking,  therefore,  or  any  other  prepa- 
ration that  assists  in  the  transformation,  is  an  advantage. 
The  continued  application  of  heat  is  one  of  the  best  and 
cheapest  means  for  effecting  the  desired  end.  All  kinds 
of  grain  or  bread  stuffs,  cooked  for  a  long  time,  with  a 
slow  fire,  are  improved.  One  of  the  best  ways  of  pre- 
paring wheat  is  to  take  it  in  the  kernel  and  cook  it  for 
hours,  in  water  nearly  at  the  boiling  point.  Nurses  fre- 
quently tie  up  flour  in  a  cloth  and  boil  it  for  several 
hours,  and  grate  up  the  inside  for  the  use  of  delicate  chil- 
dren. The  starch  is  thus  changed  to  a  great  extent. 
One  of  the  best  things  for  laxity  of  the  second  stomach 
is  parched  corn ;  it  was  carried  by  the  Indians  as  a  cor- 
rective of  the  effect  of  bad  water. 

1092.  PETER'S  GLANDS  are  minute  enclosed  sacs  (g, 
Fig.  238),  containing  granular  matter,  just  beneath  the 
mucous  membrane,  in  which  there  will  be  a  depression, 
/*,  over  the  sac,  owing  to  the  absence  of  tubular  or  Lie- 
berkiihn's  glands. 

1093.  THE  MODE  OF  ACTION   OR  USE  OF  PETER'S 


1089.  What  are  —  f    1090.  What  is  -  ?  1091.  What  is  said  of  —  ?  What  are  the 
effects  of  cooking  starch?   Describe  Fig.  237.   1092.  Describe  — .   1093.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO    ORGANS.    359 


FIG.  2C8. 


GLANDS  is  not  known. 
They  are  found  singly, 
and  called  solitary,  or 
in  clusters,  when  they 
are  called  agminated. 

Fig.  238,  magnified  riew 
of  Payer's  gland,  a,  tubular 
glands.  /,  depression  of  mem- 
brane, owing  to  absence  of 
a :  b,  d,  muscular  tissue ;  c, 
sinewy  tissue ;  e,  serous  sur- 
face. 


Remark. — The  second  stomach  and  colon  are  also,  oi'  course,  sup- 
plied with  mucous  glands. 

Liver  and  Gall-Bladder. 

1094.  THE  LIVER  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body, 
and,  like  all  compound  glands,  is  merely  an  aggregate 
of  minute  parts,  all  of  which  are  similar  to  each  other, 
and  in  the  liver  called  lobules. 

1095.  THE  LOBULES  OF  THE  LIVER  CAN  BE  SEEN  by 
tearing  it,  when  it  will  exhibit  a  fine  granular   struc- 
ture, each  granule  being  a  lobule,  and  the  whole  bound 
together  by  a  small  amount  of  sinewy  fibres  ;  they  are 
interwoven  with  an  immense  number  of  blood-tubes  and 
some  nerves,  while  the  whole  are  enclosed  by  sinewy 
tissue,  finished  with  cells,  forming  a  serous  membrane. 

1096.  EACH  LOBULE  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  supplying 
blood-vessels  which  encircle  its  surface,  and  a  vein  spring- 
ing from  its  centres ;  between  the  former  and  the  latter 
an  exquisitely  delicate  network  of  capillaries  exists,  in  the 
meshes  of  which  are  the  secretory  cells  of  the  lobules, 
secreting  the  bile  from  the  blood  of  the  capillaries,  and 
pouring  it  into  the  bile-ducts  between  the  lobules. 

1097.  Remark. — However  curious  it  may  seem,  PHYSIOLOGISTS  ARE 


Describe  Fig.  238.    1094.  What  is  —  ?    1095.  How  can  —  ?    1096.  Howls—? 
109T.  In  what  are  -? 


360  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

NOT  TET  AGREED  how  the  bile-ducts  commence,  nor  how  they  obtain  the 
bile  from  the  cells  in  which  it  is  secreted. 

1098.  THE  LIVER  is  FURNISHED  with  only  a  smafi 
artery,  supposed  to  supply  the  nutrient  blood ;  but  that 
from  which  the  bile  is  secreted  is  supplied  through  the 
branches  of  a  vein  (portal),  that  is  composed  of  five,  one 
from  the  stomach,  spleen,  pancreas,  and  two  from  the 
second  stomach :  these  unite  to  form  one,  and  through  it 
pour  their  contents  into  the  liver. 

1099.  Inf. — It  is  obvious  that  THE  BLOOD  FROM  THE  FIVE  ORGANS 
MENTIONED  does  not  FLOW  back  directly  to  the  heart,  but  ere  that  organ 
is  reached  it  is  operated  upon  By  the  liver ;  a  peculiarity  of  the  circulation 
worthy  of  notice  and  being  remembered.  "^Q 

1100.  IT  is  ALSO  ASCERTAINED  that  some  of  the  cells 
of  the  liver  secrete  from  the  Blood,  and  yield  back  to  it, 
a  sweet  substance,  called  liver-sugar ;  for  the  Blood  that 
flows  from  the  liver  is  sweeter  than  that  which  flows 
into  it. 

1101.  Inf. — THE  LIVER  MAY  BE  CALLED  A  DOUBLE  GLAND,  having  a 
double  office,  to  secrete  bile,  and  remove  it  from  the  Blood,  and  to  trans- 
form some  of  its  elements  into  sugar. 

1102.  Remark. — BY  WHAT  PROCESS,  change,  or  from  what  source, 
THE  SUGAR  is  PRODUCED  IN  THE  LIVER,  is  not  yet  understood.    It  may  be 
that  the  secretion  of  the  bile  produces  such  a  condition  in  the  Blood 
that  sugar  is  formed  as  a  necessary  result,  and  without  any  further 
secretion. 

1103.  THE  LIVER,  BY  PRODUCING  SUGAR,  BECOMES 
an  assistant  heat-producing  organ. 

1104.  Remark. — Hence,  if  it  is  deranged,  and  the  other  organs  can 
deposit  fat,  it  may  be  expected  they  will  do  so,  that  the  heat  produced 
may  be  preserved  thereby.  Accordingly  it  not  unfrequently  happens 
that  derangement  of  the  liver,  as  effected  by  the  use  of  ale,  lager  beer, 
etc.,  will  be  followed  by  deposits  of  fat.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
liver  is  deranged,  and  .the  other  organs  cannot  deposit  fat,  as  is  gen- 
erally the  case  when  distilled  alcoholics  are  used,  leanness  and  pallor 
follow. 


1098.  How—?    1099.  How  does  -?    1100.  What  Is—?    1101.  Why  may-? 
1102.  By  —  ?    1103.  —  what?    1104  How  does  the  liver  effect  deposit  of  fat* 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES   INTO    OEGANS.    361 

1105.  THE  BILE  is  a  very  complex  fluid,  of  an  orange- 
green  color,  rather  sweetish  than  bitter,  copiously  secre- 
ted in  nearly  all  animals ;  yet  its  complete  and  precise 
uses  have  not  been  satisfactorily  determined. 

1106.  THE  GALL-BLADDER  or  cyst  is  a  conical  bag  or 
pouch  of  one  to  three  ounces'  capacity,  beneath  the  liver, 
and  by  a  duct  opening  into  its  duct  at  a  point  near  where 
it  leaves  the  liver.     The  cyst  is  constructed  of  a  strong 
layer  of  sinewy  tissue,  lined  with  mucous  membrane. 

1107.  THE  USE  OF  THE  CYST,  as  usually  described,  is 
to  receive  and  retain  the  bile  till  the  proper  time  for  it 
to  pass  into  the  duodenum.     But  the  contents  of  the 
cyst  are  intensely  bitter,  and  this  character  must  be  the 
result  of  a  secretion  there,  even  if  the  whole  of  the  gall 
it  contains  is  not  secreted  in  the  cyst. 

1108.  THE  JEJUNUM  AND  ILEUM  are  merely  exten- 
sions of  the  duodenum,  with  slight  modifications,  the 
valvulae  conniventes  (PL  29)  becoming  more  numerous, 
and  the  villi  on  their  surfaces  increasing  to  an  almost 
infinite  number.    In  the  villi  lacteals  take  their  rise,  and 
numerous  absorbing  capillaries  also  exist.     (PL  29.) 

1109.  THE   CHYME  FIG.  239. 

FEOM       THE       STOMACH, 

passing  little  by  little 
through  the  pylorus 
(porter),  is  mingled 
with  the  pancreatic, 
hepatic,  and  intestinal 
juices,  and  such  chan- 
ges are  wrought  in  it  as 
gradually  adapt  all  the 
useable  parts  to  pass  in-  | 
to  the  circulation;  by 
the  gentle  vermicular  or 
worm-like  action  of  the 


1105.  What  is  — ?    1106.  What  is  -  ?    1107.  What  is  — ?    1108.  What  are  -? 
1109.  What  said  of  —  ?    How  is  changed  chyme  spread  over  intestinal  surface? 

16 


362  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

canal  the  semi-fluid  mass  is  pressed  slowly  over  the  deli- 
cate surface,  and  each  particle  ultimately  brought  in  con- 
tact with  it,  and  removed  either  into  the  lacteals  or  into 
the  capillaries. 

1110.  THE  RESIDUAL  MASS,  constituting  but  a  small 
part,  is  urged  onward  into  the  colon,  from  which  it  can- 
not readily  return  on  account  of  the  valve-like  arrange- 
ment shown  at  8,  Fig.  239.     Another  portion  excreted 
by  the  glands  and  cells  of  the  second  stomach  is  also 
passed  on  into  the  colon. 

Colon. 

1111.  THE  COLON  is  a  larger  canal  than  the  second 
stomach  or  small  intestine.     Its  mucous  coat  is  formed 
into  pouches  by  the  contraction  of  its  muscular  bands, 
and  its  surface  is  studded  with  punctures,  the  mouths 
of  tubular  glands,  in  appearance  like  those  of  the  second 
stomach ;  but  their  office  seems  to  be  different,  it  being  to 
eliminate  from  the  Blood  useless  material,  which  forms  the 
chief  part  of  the  contents  usually  to  be  found  in  the  colon. 

1112.  THE    LONGITUDINAL   MUSCULAR  FIBRES  OF  THE 

COLON  are  gathered  into  three  bundles,  shorter  than  the 
mucous  or  serous  coats,  giving  the  colon  a  pouched  ap- 
pearance, and  producing  a  condition  by  which  the  con- 
tents of  the  colon  may  be  detained. 

1113.  THE  LENGTH  OF  THE  COLON  is  about  five  feet, 
commencing  within  the  right  hip  (Fig.  234),  where  it  is 
fastened  down  quite  closely  (Fig.  240).     It  then  ascends 
to  the  liver,  turns  across  the  abdomen  to  the  left  side, 
down  which  it  follows,  curving  over  the  inner  surface  of 
the  hip,  and  then  becomes  straight,  or  the  rectum. 

1114.  Inf. — It  MUST  BE  EVIDENT  that  tight  clothing  or  bandages 
just  above  the  hips  will  tend  to  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  contents  of 
the  colon,  both  upward  into  the  transverse,  and  from  it  downward  into 
the  descending. 

1115.  Remark. — HUNDREDS  OF  LIVES  ARE  YEARLY  SACRIFICED  to 


1110.  What  said  of  —  ?   1111.  What  is  —  ?   1112.  Describe  — .    Ilia  What  Is  —  f 
1114.  What  —  ?    What  figures  show  the  effect  of  tight  clothing  on  colon  ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    363 

constriction  of  the  colon,  producing  accumulations  in  the  first  or  coecal 
and  the  transverse  part  of  it,  and  consequent  inflammation.  Clothing 
should  not  be  fastened  upon  the  hips,  but  should  hang  suspended  upon 
the  shoulders.  (See  Ap.  N.) 

FIG.  240. 


Fig.  240,  cross  section  of  abdomen,  to  show  10,  the  ascending  colon, 
bound  down  by  28,  29,  the  lining  (peritoneum)  of  the  abdomen;  and  14, 
the  descending  colon,  confined  by  18,  20,  while  12,  ileum,  is  held  in  place 
by  the  portion  of  the  mesentery  formed  by  23  and  25.  The  same  mem- 
brane can  be  followed  quite  around.  7,  kidneys. 

1116.  THE  USE  OF  THE  COLON  is  to  receive  whatever 
is  thrown  into  it  from  the  ileum,  to  eliminate  waste  mat- 
ter from  the  Blood,  and  to  serve  as  a  portable  reservoir 
for  those  substances. 

1117.  ONE  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  LAWS  OF  HEALTH 

Bis  to  have  a  regular  daily  evacuation  of  the  accumulations 
in  the  colon. 

The  Lacteals. 

1118.  THE  LACTE ALS  are  a  variety  of  the  lymphatics, 
commencing  in  the  papillae  of  the  second  stomach  as  club- 
shaped  roots  (Fig.  88),  and,  gradually  uniting  together 
at  glands  in  the  mesentery  (Figs.  93,  104)  form  at  last  a 
small  trunk,  the  thoracic  duct,  1,  2,  Fig.  241,  that  extends 
up  into  the  neck,  turns  down,  and  empties  into  the  veins. 


Describe  Fig.  240.    1115.  How  are  —  ?    1116.  What  is  — ?    HIT.  What  is  —  ? 
1118.  What  are— ? 


'C4 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


1119.  THE        LACTEAL 
HOOTS  ARE  CONSTRUCTED  of 

membrane  only,  but  to  this 
are  added  a  lining  of  cells 
and  a  covering  of  sinewy 
tissue  to  form  the  tubes. 

1120.  THE     LACTEALS 
TAKE  UP,  among  other  sub- 
stances, the  fat,  that  gives 
their  contents  the  color  of 
milk ;  hence  the  name,  lac- 
teals.     Their   contents  are 
called  chyle. 

1121.  THE  CHYLE  TAK- 
EN  UP   BY  THE  LACTEALS  IS 

MODIFIED  by  their  action 
and  that  of  the  glands,  so 
that  by  the  time  it  reaches 
the  veins  it  has  a  pinkish 
cast,  but  its  light  color  can 
be  traced  in  the  Blood,  into 
the  lungs,  after  which  no 
farther  trace  is  perceptible 
to  the  eye,  though  it  is 
abundantly  evident  if 

properly  sought. 

• 

SECTION  IX. 
ELIMINATORY  ORGANS. 

Kidneys. 

1122.  THE     KIDNEYS 
are  two  similar  glands,  of  a 

dark  brown  color,  about  four  and  a  half  inches  in  length 
by  two  in  breadth  and  one  in  thickness,  of  the  form  of 


Describe  Fig.  241  (see  PL  5*).   1119.  How  are  —  ?    1120.  What  do  —  ?    112LHow 
|s-f    jm.  Whataie  —  ?    Where—? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS   OF   TISSUES  INTO    ORGANS.    365 

kidney-beans,  with  a  smooth  surface,  dense  to  the  touch, 
and  SITUATED  one  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column,  cor- 
responding to  two  dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  the  right, 
however,  being  a  little  lower ;  it  is  in  contact  with  the 
liver,  the  descending  duodenum  and  ascending  colon,  the 
left  being  in  contact  with  the  spleen,  pancreas,  stomach, 
and  descending  colon. 

1123.  Remark. — Sometimes  there  is  only  one  very  large  kidney,  of 
an  irregular  shape,  and  extending  across  the  spinal  column,  like  the  pan- 
creas ;  sometimes  the  two  are  connected  by  a  band,  the  whole  having 
the  form  of  a  horseshoe.  Sometimes  when  disease,  accident,  or  exper- 
iment destroys  one  kidney,  the  other  increases  so  as  to  supply  the  use 
of  both. 

1124.  THE  KIDNEYS  ABE  BURIED  in  a  large  quantity 
6f  Adipose  tissue,  the  precise  purport  of  which  is  not 
determined,  further  than  that  it  serves  to  preserve  a 
uniform  temperature  in  the  kidneys. 

1125.  A    SECTION    OF   A   KID-  FIG.  241. 

NEY  SHOWS  that  it  is  constructed 
of  an  external  coat  or  tunic  (2, 
Fig.  241)  of  sinewy  fibres,  woven 
very  densely,  within  which  is  a 
granular  layer,  3,  with  a  tubular 
portion,  4,  surrounding  a  cavity, 
7,  from  which  a  tube  or  duct,  8, 
9,  leads  to  the  vesicle  or  reservoir. 

1126.  AGAIN,  THE  KIDNEY 
MAY  BE  DESCEIBED  as  constructed 
of  an  immense  number  of  minute  9 
tubes  that  radiate  from  the  pelvis, 
7,  outward  to   the   granular-ap- 
pearing cortical  part,  where  it  will  be  found  that  each 
granule  is  a  group  of  capillaries  beautifully  enveloped 
by  the  extremity  of  the  tube. 

1127.  THE  STRAIGHT  PART  OF  THE  TUBE  is  CONSTRUCT- 


1123.  Are  the  kidneys  uniformly  two  ?    1124.  In  what  are  —  ?    1 125.  What  does 
a  —  ?    1126.  How  may  —  ?    1127.  How  is  —  ? 


366  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

ED  of  basement  membrane  lined  with  cells,  while  the 
outer  extremity  is  constructed  of  the  membrane  only, 
and  the  water  of  the  Blood  circulating  through  the 
group  of  capillaries  there,  can  exude  very  freely  when 
occasion  requires,  washing  out  the  eliminations  from 
the  cellular  part  of  the  tube,  where  they  are  excreted. 
Veins  arise  from  the  group  of  capillaries,  and  lead  to 
capillaries  around  the  tubes.  There  are,  therefore,  two 
classes  of  capillaries  in  the  kidneys,  and  a  peculiar  cir- 
culation. 

1128.  THE  ARTERY  LEADING  INTO  THE  KIDNEY  is  lar- 
ger, in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  gland,  than  the  ar- 
tery leading  into  any  other  part  except  the  brain.     The 
artery  divides  and  subdivides  among  the  tubules,  until 
microscopic  twigs  reach  the  capillaries  of  the  granules  or 
Malphigian  bodies,  and  the  veins  smaller  in  capacity  than 
the  arteries  lead  back  first  to  the  capillaries  of  the  tubules, 
and  again  others  arising  from  them,  lead  out  of  the  kid- 
ney by  the  side  of  the  arteries.     Nerves   also  extend 
through  all  parts  of  the  kidney. 

1129.  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  KIDNEY  INDICATES  that 
it  is  adapted  to  a  double  use,  which  is  the  removal  of 
water  and  the  elimination  of  waste  matter,  produced  by 
the  action  of  the  brain  in  particular,  much  of  which  is 
in  a  crystalline  form,  or  readily  become  such.     They  are 
illustrated  in  the  following  figures  of  urates  and  phos- 
phates. 

FIG.  242.  FIG.  243. 


1128.  Wbfit  said  of  —  ?    What  inference  might  be  deduced  from  size  of  renal 
and  branial  arteries?    1129.  What  does  —  T    What  do  Figs.  242  to  246  represent? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OP  TISSUES    INTO    ORGANS.    36 


FIG.  244. 


FIG.  245. 

/<? 


1130.       THE  ELIMINATION  OF  A  CER- 
TAIN    QUANTITY    OF    WATER    WOuld   be     * 

necessary  to  dissolve  and  float  away  the  solid  elimina- 
tions, but  the  removal  of  water  in  large  quantities  would 
rapidly  diminish  the  entire  quantity  of  Blood  circula- 
ting in  the  Body,  though  not  the  heat-producing  part ; 
that  would,  of  course,  pass  through  its  rounds,  and  pro- 
duce heat  so  much  the  more  rapidly.  The  kidneys, 
therefore,  assist  in  regulating  the  heat  of  the  body. 

1131.  Remark. — THE  SHORT  TIME  IN  WHICH  SOME  SUBSTANCES  taken 
into  the  stomach  will  MANIFEST  THEIR  ACTION  THROUGH  THE  KIDNEYS,  has 
often  caused  the  question,  Is  there  not  a  direct  communication  between 
the  two  ?  There  is  none :  the  ordinary  circulation  soon  subjects  all  the 
Blood  to  the  action  of  these  organs,  and  it  shows  the  rapidity  of  the 
circulation. 

The  Perspiratory  Glands,  etc. 

1132.     THE  PERSPIRATORY  GLANDS  are  minute  tubes, 
some  of  them  straight  and  some  coiled  at  the  inner  ex- 

FIG.  247. 


1130.  What  said  of  —  ?    1131.  What  said  of  —  T    Proves  what?    1182.  What  are 
—  ?    Describe  Fig.  247. 


368  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

tremity,  situated  in  all  parts  of  the  skin,  yet  most  nu- 
merous in  some  parts.     (See  Fig.  109.) 

1133.  THE  COILED  PART  or  THE  PERSPIRATORY  GLANDS 
is  CONSTRUCTED  of  secretory  membrane  only :  the  part 
between  the  coil  and  the  surface  is  lined  with  cells. 

1134.  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THESE  GLANDS  INDICATES 
their  office  to  be  twofold,  as  is  the  fact :  to  remove  water, 
and  to  eliminate  a  viscid  substance  composed  of  mate- 
rials no  longer  fit  for  use  in  the  body. 

1135.  THESE  GLANDS  REMOVE  WATER  in  small  quan- 
tity to  assist  in  removing  the  viscid  substance,  but  in 
large  quantities  when  the  heat  of  the  body  is  excessive, 
in  order  that  by  evaporating  from  the  surface,  the  skin 
and  consequently  the  body  may  be  cooled. 

1136.  THE  ELIMINATION  OF  THE  VISCID  SUBSTANCE 
varies  in  quantity,  independently  of  the  watery,  but  in 
accordance  with  the  necessities  of  the  Blood,  a  diurnal 
increase  taking  place  about  midnight,  commencing  earlier 
and  continuing  longer  in  infancy. 

1137.  Remark. — THIS  PERIOD  CORRESPONDS  to  the  night-sweats  of 
some  kinds  of  disease,  that  are  merely  extraordinary  conditions  of  a 
healthy,  increased  action. 

1138.  Ittus. — A  ROOM  IN  WHICH  A  PERSON  SPENDS  THE  HOURS  OP 
NIGHT  will  be  charged  with  a  greater  quantity  of,  and  much  more  un- 
pleasant, exhalations,  than  will  be  found  under  like  circumstances  in  the 
day-time,  though  if  a  person  remains  awake  the  increase  of  perspiration 
will  not  be  as  considerable  as  if  he  sleeps ;  and  the  discomfort  following 
a  sleepless  night  is  partly  owing  to  this  fact. 

1139.  Inf. — THE  MORNING  is  THE  APPROPRIATE  TIME  to  cleanse  the 
skin ;  the  clothing  worn  next  the  skin  during  the  night  should  not  be 
worn  during  the  day,  but  aired  ;  the  bedding  should  be  well  aired  every 
morning,  and  often  thoroughly  cleaned  ;  sleeping  rooms  should  be  well 
ventilated  during  the  night,  and  thoroughly  aired  every  morning. 

1140.  Remark. — It  is  NOT  STATED  that  thorough  washing  of  the 
skin  is  absolutely  necessary  every  morning ;  it  may  be  sufficient  to  do 
this  two  or  three  tunes  per  week  :   but  to  rub  the  skin  with  a  towel 
every  morning  will  not  only  do  no  harm,  but  will  do  much  good. 


1183.  How  is  — ?  1134.  What  does—  ?  1135Whydo— ?  1136.  What  said  of  —  ? 
1 1 87.  To  what  does  —  ?  1188.  What  said  of  —  f  1139.  For  what  is  —  ?  1140.  What — ? 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    369 

1141.  Remark. — THE  BEST  METHOD  OP  CLEANSING  THE  SKIN  will  de- 
pend upon  the  constitution  and  health  of  a  person.  If  he  can  afford  to 
lose  heat,  cool  water  may  be  used ;  but  if  he  suffers  from  this,  warm 
water  will  never  be  harmful  if  care  is  taken  to  prevent  evaporation,  by 
rapidly  washing,  drying,  and  covering  one  part  before  exposing  another. 
The  vapor-bath  is  the  most  delicious  and  thoroughly  cleansing  of  all 
baths,  and  if  taken  during  a  very  brief  period,  only  till  the  perspiration 
begins  to  start  on  the  face,  no  other  than  good  results  can  follow ;  and  in 
case  of  incipient  colds,  and  in  rheumatic  and  asthmatic  affections,  the 
most  desirable  results  may  be  anticipated.  The  idea  that  colds  are  more 
likely  to  be  taken  after  them  is  erroneous,  for  heat  being  by  them  added 
to  the  body  it  can  afford  to  lose  it  without  detriment.  Hence,  the  Rus- 
sians pass  from  their  vapor-baths  into  the  ice-cold  river  without  a  shock, 
but  with  pleasure. 

1142.  THE  USES  OF  THE  PEESPIEATOEY  GLANDS  are 
among  the  most  extensive  and  important  in  the  body ; 
and  this  is  the  reason  why  they  are  so  numerous,  and 
one  reason  why  the  skin  should  be  supplied  with  an  ex- 
traordinary proportion  of  Blood.  It  must  also  be  circu- 
lated through  the  skin  to  keep  it  warm  and  in  a  sensi- 
tive condition. 

1143.  Illus. — WILSON  HAS  COMPUTED  that  the  amount  of  tubeing 
in  the  perspiratory  glands  of  the  human  body  is  about  twenty-eight 
miles  ;  but  this  computation  is  certainly  much  too  small.  The  amount 
thrown  out  by  the  skin  is  never,  in  health,  less  than  one  pound  in  the 
twenty-four  hours,  running  up  to  five  pounds  in  the  hour.  I  have  ob- 
served, in  one  case,  a  man  to  lose  four  pounds  in  one  hour  and  thirty- 
five  minutes :  this  included  that  lost  by  the  lungs ;  he  neither  ate  nor 
drank  anything  meantime ;  most  of  this  was,  of  course,  water.  Sanc- 
torius  weighed  himself  and  all  he  ate  and  drank  for  thirty  years,  thus 
giving  all  the  necessary  data  on  this  point. 

1144.  THE  CEEUMINOUS  AND  ODOKIFEEOUS  GLANDS 
are  coiled  tubes,  like  the  perspiratory,  the  former  in  the 
ear-tube,  and  secreting  the  ear-wax,  the  latter  being  clus- 
tered with  the  sweat-glands  in  the  armpit. 

1145.  Remark. — In  some  persons  the  odors  from  these  glands  are 
very  unpleasant.  Cleanliness  will  prevent  them  from  accumulating ;  but 
only  strong  perfumes,  like  musk,  will  overpower  them,  and  are  the  only 
resources  at  present  known. 


1141.  What  is  — ?    1142.  What  are  —  ?    1143.  What  has  —  ?    What  amount 
lost  by  skin  ?    1144.  What  said  of  —  ? 


3  TO  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

1146.  THE  OIL  OB  SEBACEOUS  GLANDS  are  purse- 
shaped  pouches  of  basement  membrane,  lined  with  cells, 
opening  usually  into  the  hair-follicle,  and  pouring  their 
oily  secretions  out  by  the  side  of  the  hair  (Fig.  248), 
and  in  other  cases  on  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

FIG.  248.  1147.     THE  USE  OF  THE  OIL-FOL- 

LICLES is  to  supply  oil  to  promote  the 
softness  and  flexibility  of  the  skin 
and  hair. 

1148.     The  oil  being  formed  from 
the  Blood,  a  free  circulation  of  it  is 

ESSENTIAL  TO  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE 


OIL. 

1149.  Inf. — RUBBING  AND  BRUSHING  THE 
SKIN,  and  keeping  it  warm,  will  promote  the 
formation  of  oil. 

1150.  Remark. — THE   TENDENCY   OF  COLD 
WEATHER,  and  much  washing  of  the  skin  with 

alcalies,  is  to  prevent  the  formation  of  oil,  and  to  remove  it  faster  than 
it  can  be  re-formed,  especially  if  the  alcalies  are  strong  and  applied  so 
long  that  the  oil  is  drawn  out  of  the  glands  as  well  as  removed  from  the 
surface.  Then  the  skin  cracks  or  chaps,  and  the  hair  becomes  dry.  For 
the  skin,  in  such  cases,  one  of  the  best  things  is  an  ointment  of  honey, 
lard,  and  sweet  oil,  one  third  each ;  and  for  the  hair,  the  best  artificial 
application  is  lard,  sweet  oil,  sweet  almond  oil,  and  castor  oil,  mixed 
with  a  little  borax  water ;  each  article  should  be  pure ;  the  proportions 
vary  with  the  season,  being  such  as  will  make  a  cream.  The  very  best 
oil  is  that  furnished  by  the  head  itself. 

1151.  THE  HAIR-FOLLICLES  are   short  tubes  lined 
with  cells,  the  lower  ones  of  which  grow  up  into  the 
hairs  themselves,  becoming  scales  at  the  surface  of  the 
hairs,  and  remaining  more  pulpy  within. 

1152.  THE  USE  OF  THE  HAIRS  is  in  some  cases  orna- 
mental, in  some  protective,  as  well  as  eliminatory,  and 
in  others  it  appears  to  be  only  the  latter. 

1153.  THE  HAIRS  GROW  from  the  Blood;  and  only 
such  causes  as  supply  it  with  appropriate  material  and 


1146.  What  said  of  — ?  1147.  What  is —?  1148.  Whatis  — ?  1149.  What  said-? 
1150.  What  is— ?   1151.  What  said  of — ?    1152.  What  is  — ?   1158.  From  what  — » 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS   OF  TISSUES  INTO   ORGANS.    371 

circulate  it  rapidly  around  the  roots  of  the  hair  can  pro- 
mote its  growth. 

1154.  Remark. — The  various  lotions  and  nostrums  that  are  sold  to 
promote  the  growth  of  the  hair  can  have  no  other  effect  than  to  increase 
the  circulation  of  Blood,  and  this  the  brushing  alone  would  do  equally 
as  well.  Some  are  said  to  prevent  dandruff ;  that  is  only  the  external 
layer  of  scales,  and  ought  to  come  away. 

1155.  THE  NAILS  are  only  the  cells  of  the  external 
layer  of  the  skin,  with  an  increased  quantity  of  horny 
matter  deposited  in  them,  and  modified  in  a  few  other 
particulars. 

FIG.  250.  FIG.  251o 


Fig.  249,  vertical  section  of  finger-end.  1,  cuticle;  2,  where  it  turns 
back  to  become  continuous  with  the  nail,  3 ;  4,  cuticle  leaving  nail ;  5,  6, 
7,  8,  surface  of  the  dermis  or  first  layer  of  cuticular  cells ;  9,  10,  11,  12, 
dermis  or  true  skin. 

Fig.  250  represents  the  surface  (matrix)  on  which  the  nail  grows ;  1, 
being  the  skin  overlaying  the  back  edge  or  root  of  the  nail ;  2,  a  portion 
of  1  turned  back  ;  3,  shows  less  vascular  part,  and  4,  the  more  vascular. 

Fig.  251  represents  the  under  surface  of  a  nail,  grooved  to  fit  the 
matrix. 

1156.  THE  NAILS  GROW  forward  from  the  root  at  the 
same  time  that  additional  cells  are  applied  from  below, 
increasing  their  thickness  toward  the  front  part. 

SECTION  X. 

MODIFICATORY   ORGANS. 
Blood- Cells. 

1157.  Remark. — BLOOD-CELLS  cannot,  properly  speaking,  BE  CALLED 
ORGANS,  since  an  organ  is  constructed  of  several  tissues,  and  is  under 
nervous  influence ;  while  Blood-cells  are  constructed  of  a  single  secretory 

1154.  What  said  of  nostrums,  etc.?  1155.  What  are—?  Describe  Fig.  249. 
Fig.  250.  Fig.  251.  1156.  How  do— ?  1157.  Why  cannot  — ?  How  considered? 


372  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

tissue,  and,  as  far  as  can  be  judged,  float  in  the  Blood  independently  of 
any  nervous  influence.  If,  however,  they  were  massed  as  a  gland,  they 
would  form  the  essential  part  of  it,  and  if  their  action  is  no  higher  than 
that  which  exists  in  the  plant,  there  would  be  no  necessity  for  nervous 
influence.  Hence  they  may  be  considered  the  simplest  form  of  a  gland, 
dissolved,  so  to  speak,  in*fbe  Blood ;  or  they  may  be  looked  upon  as 
floating  plants,  and,  as  their  office  is  modificatory,  they  are  correctly 
classed  under  the  above  head.  If  the  cells  need  nervous  influence,  it 
may  be  received  as  they  pass  through  the  capillaries  of  the  nervous 
centres. 

1158.  Inf.— Since  the  Blood  in  the  body  weighs  not  less  than 
twenty  pounds,  IF  THESE  CELLS  HAD  BEEN  MASSED,  constituting  when  dry 
one  tenth,  and  distended  one  half  the  bulk  of  the  Blood,  they  alone 
would  have  weighed  ten  pounds,  and  with  the  other  tissues  of  an  organ, 
at  least  fifteen  pounds.    Where  in  the  body  could  this  have  been  conve- 
niently located  ?    Observe  the  beauty  of  the  arrangement  by  which  this 
immense  gland  is  dissolved  hi  the  Blood.     Also  notice,  that  the  blood- 
cells  exceed  in  weight  all  the  other  secretory  tissues  collectively ! 

1159.  Remark. — SINCE  THE   BLOOD-CELLS   HAVE  THE    NATURE  OF 
PLANTS,  it  is  PROBABLE  that  the  influence  of  the  sun's  light  and  heat  as- 
sists in  perfecting  them  and  their  action,  especially  as  it  is  certain  that 
an  active  circulation  of  Blood  through  the  skin,  and  a  free  exposure  of 
it  to  the  influence  of  the  light,  and  heat,  and  chemical  rays  of  the  sun,  is 
essential  to  perfection  pf  health,  and  always  conducive  to  its  improve- 
ment, while  the  opposite  conditions,  viz.,  feeble  circulation  in  the  skin, 
cold,  and  darkness,  is  sure  to  deprave  health,  however  good. 

11  GO.  Inf. — WINDOWS  SHOULD  BE  large  and  numerous,  especially  in 
a  school-house,  and  every  room  hi  a  house  should  be  so  constructed  as 
to  receive  directly  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

1161.  Remark. — ALL  WINDOWS  SHOULD  BE  DOUBLE  IN  WINTER,  that 
they  may  preserve  the  heat  that  flows  in  from  the  sun,  as  well  as  that 
produced  within  by  artificial  means ;  not  with  the  object  of  keeping  out 
the  cold  air,  an  abundance  of  which,  for  purposes  of  ventilation,  should 
be  properly  introduced,  and  can  be  afforded,  if  windows  are  double,  for- 
rooms  are  chiefly  cooled  by  heat  passing  through  the  glass  itself.  Dou- 
ble windows  arc  a  great  economy. 

Lymphatic  Glands. 

1162.  LYMPHATIC  GLAITDS  are  small  bodies,  about 
the  size  of  grains  of  wheat,  and  exceedingly  numerous  in 

1158.  "What  —  ?    "What  previous  paragraphs  describe  blood -cells  ?    1159.  "What 
—  ?    1160.  What  should  — •    1181.  Why  should  — ?    1162.  What  are  — f 


SYSTEMATIC  SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES  INTO  ORGANS.    373 

various  parts  of  the  body,  particularly  in  the  neck  and 
groin,  where,  when  they  are  swollen  and  hard,  they  are 
easily  felt. 

1163.  THE   LYMPHATIC  GLANDS   ARE  CONSTRUCTED 
of  an  external  coat  of  sinewy  tissue,  also  woven  through 
the  gland  so  as  to  leave  numerous  passages,  a  kind  of 
network,  lined  with  basement  membrane  and  cells,  that 
grow,  loosen,  and  float  off  to  form  the  white  blood-cells, 
from  the  nuclei  of  which  the  red  ones  are  developed. 

1164.  THE  PASSAGES  OF  THE  GLANDS  communicate 
with  or  open  from  or  into   lymphatic  tubes,  through 
which  lymph  is  received  and  removed, — modified  by 
cellular  action. 

1165.  THE  GLANDS  ARE  ALSO  CONSTRUCTED  of  capil- 
laries and  nerves;  by  the  former  Blood  is  circulated 
through,  and  by  the  latter  nervous  influence  exerted 
upon,  the  glands. 

1166.  Remark. — It  is  evident  that  the  cellular  action  of  the  gland 
may  be  influenced  by  the  Blood  it  receives ;  and  it  may  be  that  a  part 
of  the  lymph  is  taken  up  by  the  capillaries. 

1167.  Remark. — It  is  not  possible  to  calculate  the  size  of  a  gland 
that  would  be  formed  by  the  Lymphatic  glands  if  amassed  in  one  organ, 
but  it  would  weigh  several  pounds.     Hence  these  glands  are  distributed 
where  there  is  room  for  them,  where  their  office  will  be  best  performed, 
and  without  disfiguring  any  member. 

Spleen. 

1168.  THE  SPLEEN  is  a  purple-brown,  mottled  gland, 
four  to  five  inches  long  by  three  to  four  broad  and  one 
to  two  thick,  shaped  like  half  an  egg  cut  lengthwise, 
the  inner  surface,  however,  being  slightly  concave. 

1169.  THE  POSITION  OF  THE  SPLEEN  is  in  the  left 
side,  the  outer  or  convex  surface,  shown  by  Fig.  251, 
being  in  contact  with  the  walls  of  the  trunk,  and  the 
opposite  concave  surface,  Fig.  112,  being  in  contact  with 
the   stomach  and  pancreas.     It  is  attached  to  the  dia- 

1163.  How  —  ?    1164.  What  said  of  —  ?    1165.  How  -?    1166.  Effect  of  Blood 
on  gland?    1167.  Size  of  glands  amassed?    1168.  Describe  — .    1169.  What  is  —  ? 


374 


DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 


FlG-  252-  phragm  above  and  to  the  large 

extremity  of  the  stomach. 

1170.  Remark.  —  Th  ough  THE 
SPLEEN  is  located  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
cligestory  organs,  and  usually  de- 
scribed under  the  same  head,  it  does 
not  appear  to  HAVE  ANY  DIGESTORY 

OFFICE. 

1171.  THE  SPLEEN  is  CON- 
STRUCTED of  an  external  se- 
rous coat,  to  prevent  friction ; 
the  sinewy  fibres  of  this  inter- 
sect the  spleen  in  every  direc- 
tion, forming  a  sponge-like 
structure,  in  the  spaces  of 
which  a  pulp,  looking  like  clot- 
ted blood,  is  found.  This 

pulp   is   composed    chiefly   of  blood-cells,   unchanged; 

others  in  various  states ;  a  fine  granular  matter,  etc. 

1172.  THE  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  SPLENIC  ABTEKY  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  and  the  capillaries  and  veins  cor- 
respond.    Lymphatics  exist  in  the  spleen,  and  it  is  also 
supplied  with   nerves.      On  the  minute  arteries  small 
bodies  (splenic  corpuscles)  are  found ;  use  unknown. 

1173.  As  the  spleen  has  no  inlet  but  an  artery,  and 
no  outlet  but  a  vein,  THE  USE  OF  THE  SPLEEN  MUST  BE  to 
modify  the  Blood  in  some  manner ;  and  every  indication 
at  present  shows  that  its  use  has  reference  to  the  blood- 
cells,  and  is  probably  adapted  to  the  change  of  the  nuclei 
of  the  white  into  the  red  cells. 

1174.  Remark. — The  spleen  has  been  removed  from  animals  by 
experiment,  and  from  man  by  accident,  without  affecting  health ;  it  is 
therefore  evident  that  its  office  must  be  unimportant,  or  can  be  per- 
formed by  some  other  part.  And  since  the  spleen  at  times  enlarges 
enormously,  as  when  the  passage  of  the  Blood  through  any  part  is  ob- 
structed for  a  time,  it  appears  probable  that  the  cells  that  cannot  cir- 


1170.  Does  -?    1171.  How  is  — ?    1172.  What  said  of-?    1173.  What  must-? 
1174.  Effect  of  removing  spleen  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS  OF  TISSUES   INTO   ORGANS.    375 

culate  freely  in  Blood  are  amassed  in  the  spleen,  especially  as  they  are 
always  small  in  number  in  the  Blood  when  the  spleen  is  enlarged. 

Thyroid  Gland. 

1175.  THE  THYROID  GLAND,  Fig.  113,  is  a  deep-red, 
small,  saddle-shaped  gland,  situated  upon  the  windpipe 
below  the  larynx,  not  usually  conspicuous,  yet  can  be  felt. 

1176.  THE   THYROID  GLAND  is  CONSTRUCTED  of  an 
external  sinewy  tissue,  the  fibres  of  which  intersect  the 
gland,  forming  small  cavities  lined  with  basement  mem- 
brane, the  inner  surface  being  clothed  with  ceils,  and 
the  central   cavity  filled  with  a  viscid,  amber-colored 
liquid  containing  granular  matter.     It  is  also  construct- 
ed of  blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  and  nerves. 

1177.  THE  USE  OF  THE  THYROID  GLAND  can  at  pres- 
ent only  be  said  to  be,  to  modify  the  Blood,  of  which 
there  is  assurance,  since  its  only  inlet  and  outlet  is  blood- 
tubes,  and  its  structure  is  in  part  secretory. 

1178.  Remark. — THE  THYROID  FREQUENTLY  ENLARGES  to  a  very  un- 
comfortable size.  This  is  more  usual  among  females ;  in  certain  families 
also  there  is  this  tendency.  But  so  far  as  the  author  has  observed,  in 
this  country,  the  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  is  associated  with  the  use 
of  hard  water,  especially  that  produced  by  magnesian  limestone ;  with 
rare  exceptions  the  enlargement  can  be  prevented  or  diminished  by  the 
use  of  soft  water.  The  surest  course  for  a  person  or  family  thus  affect- 
ed is  to  move  to  a  locality  where  the  water  is  soft  and  the  air  pure. 

Thymus  Gland ;  Suprarenal  Capsules. 

1179.  THE  THYMUS  GLAND  is  located  back  of  the  up- 
per part  of  the  sternum ;  it  is  of  noticeable  size  in  infan- 
cy, but  diminishes  to  a  trace  at  maturity ;  use  unknown. 

1180.  THE  SUPRARENAL  CAPSULES  are  small  bodies,— 
found  at  the  summit  of  the  kidneys ;  use  not  understood. 

1181.  THE  THYMUS  AND   SUPRARENAL  GLANDS  ARE 
CONSTRUCTED  of  sinewy  and  secretory  tissue,  and  sup- 
plied with  blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  and  nerves. 


1175.  What  is— ?  1176.  How  is-?   1177.  What  is— ?  1178.  Does  — ?    In  what 
Cases?    1179.  Describe —.    1180.  Describe  — .    1181.  How  are  — ?. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTHESIS  OF  ORGANS  INTO  APPARATUS,  AND  OF 
USES  INTO  FUNCTIONS. 

Introductory . 

1182.  Remark, — A  REVIEW  OF  THE  ORGANS  WILL  SUGGEST  that  they 
act  together  hi  ten  classes  to  accomplish  ten  results.     Each  class  is 
called  an  apparatus,  and  each  result  a  function. 

1183.  Remark. — THOUGH  EACH  ORGAN  HAS  BEEN  FOUND  TO  BE  CON- 
STRUCTED IN  PART  OF  BLOOD-VESSELS,  when  the  organs  are  classed  as 
apparatus,  the  blood-vessels  are  considered  as  parts  of  the  circulatory 
apparatus  superadded  to  other  apparatus. 

SECTION  I. 
Motion:  Motory  Apparatus. 

1184.  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  MOTION  REQUIRES  a  gan- 
glion to  produce,  a  nerve  to  transmit,  and  a  muscle  to 
receive,  nervous  influence,  and  usually  some  parts  of  a 
skeleton  for  the  attachment  of  muscles. 

1185.  All  the  muscles  of  the  body,  their  connecting 
nerves  and  appropriate  ganglia,  with  the  entire  skeleton, 

CONSTITUTE  A  GRAND   MOTORY  APPARATUS.       (PI.  1,  2,  3, 

and  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  PL  6.) 

1186.  THE  MOTORY  APPARATUS  is  SUBDIVIDED  into 
voluntary,  or  that  over  which  the  mind  has  control,  and 
involuntary,  or  that  which  the  mind  does  not  control. 

1187.  Inf. — THE  LATTER  are  included  in  the  different  kinds  of 
Blood-making  apparatus. 

1188.  Remark. — THE  MUSCLES  UNDER  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MIND 
OUGHT  TO  ACT  INVOLUNTARILY  at  various  times,  as  when  the  action  of 
one  muscle  or  group  of  muscles  is  necessarily,  or  by  habitual  action, 
associated  with  that  of  another. 


1182.  What  will  —  ?  1183.  —  how  considered  ?  llSi.  What  does  —  ?  1185.  What 
necessary  to  -  ?    Describe  Pis.  1,  2,  8,  and  Figs.  1,  2,  8,  of  PI.  6.    1186.  How  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF    ORGANS    INTO    APP.       37 7 

1189.  Illus. — In  walking,  the  action  of  muscles  necessary  to  bal- 
ance the  body  should  be  involuntary.  In  playing  a  familiar  tune,  or  in 
speaking,  certain,  muscles  should  be  involuntarily  associated  in  action. 

1190.       THE  VOLUNTARY   MOTORY  APPARATUS   MAY  BE 

SUBDIVIDED  in  accordance  with  the  groups  of  muscles 
naturally  associated  in  action. 

1191.  Remark. — THIS  VIEW  WILL  ACCOUNT  for  the  continuous  gan- 
glia of  the  spinal  cord,  the  lower  ones  involuntarily  associating  and  har- 
monizing the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  lower  extremities,  other  parts 
of  the  cord  doing  the  same  in  regard  to  muscles  corresponding  to  them, 
till  at  the  upper  part  of  its  motor  tract  the  cerebellum  is  found  crowning 
its  involuntary  office  by  harmonizing  the  action  of  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body,  while  the  voluntary  portion  of  the  tract  extends  still  higher,  and 
reaches  forward  to  receive  the  wilful  action  of  the  mind. 

1192.  Inf. — EXERCISE  OP  THE  MOTORY  APPARATUS  is  something  more 
than  exercise  of  muscles — it  is  also  that  of  nerves,  ganglia,  and  even  the 
skeleton ;  and  disease  or  derangement  of  the  Motory  apparatus  may  be 
of  either  ganglia,  nerves,  or  muscles,  or  of  all  at  once.     When  mo- 
tion cannot  be  produced,  the  question  is,  which  part  of  the  apparatus  is 
at  fault  ?    Perfect  action  of  the  Motor  apparatus  requires  exercise  and 
perfection  of  the  ganglia  and  nerves,  and  exercise  of  the  motor  ganglia 
is  particularly  essential. 

1193.  THE  DECOMPOSITION  ATTENDANT  UPON  EXER- 
CISE OF  THE  MOTOR  APPARATUS  REQUIRES  it  to  be  also 
associated  with  centres  that  excite  appetite,  influence  di- 
gestion, and  especially  with  those  influencing  respiration. 

1194.  ONE  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  ADVANTAGES  OF 
THE  MOTORY  EXERCISES,  is  that  they  cause  more  air  to  be 
breathed ;  in  fact,  if  the  chest  is  constrained,  or  the  air 
impure,  muscular  exercise  is  harmful  rather  than  benefi- 
cial.   Let  the  trunk-walls  be  free  to  move,  cause  pure  air 
to  be  inhaled,  then  shall  exercise  invigorate  the  whole 
body,  giving  a  hearty  appetite,  good  digestion,  a  glowing 
complexion,  sound  sleep,  and  in  every  way  a  full  meas- 
ure of  physical  enjoyment,  and  of  course  mental  profit. 

1195.  Inf. — Those  exercises  that  cause  free  respiration,  as  SPEAK- 
ING, SINGING,  READING  ALOUD,  ROWING,  etc.,  must  be  the  best. 


1189.  Illus.    1190.  How  may  —  ?    1191.  For  what  —  ?    1192.  What  said  of  —  ? 
1193.  What  does  —  ?    1194.  What  is  —  ?    1195.  What  said  of — ? 


378  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

SECTION  II. 

Intellection :  Intellectory  Apparatus. 
1196.   The  INTELLECTORY  APPARATUS  is  CONSTITUTED 
of  ganglia  only. 

1197.  Remark. — THIS  APPARATUS  REQUIRES  no  less  attention  be- 
cause composed  of  only  one  kind  of  organs.  It  must  be  associated  with 
centres  that  excite  an  appetite  for  food  appropriate  to  satisfy  its  demands. 
The  regulation  of  its  exercise  is  especially  important,  lest  it  be  too  great 
and  cause  serious  harm ;  and  it  should  be  graduated  so  as  to  develop 
that  large  circulation  of  Blood  needed  by  this  apparatus,  when  in  ad- 
vanced years  the  mind  requires  its  intense  and  continued  activity,  for 
which  the  apparatus  must  be  prepared  during  a  long  course  of  training. 
Tune  is  an  element  quite  as  requisite,  or  even  more  so,  hi  developing 
the  apparatus  as  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  Make  haste  slowly  is 
here  the  true  motto. 

SECTION  in. 

Emotion  :  Emotory  Apparatus. 
1198.     The    EMOTORY  APPARATUS  is  also    CONSTI- 
TUTED of  ganglia,  those  only  being  needed. 

1199.  Remark. — This  apparatus  has  a  remarkable  relation  to  the 
respiratory,  being  most  active  early  in  life,  and  less  so  in  advanced  years, 
and  always  greatly  influenced  by  respiration  and  the  air  respired.     It  is 
also  associated  with  the  motory  apparatus,  the  gestures  of  the  emotions 
exciting  them.     It  is  related  to  the  secretory  organs,  as  the  flow  of  tears, 
saliva,  gastric  juice,    etc.,   abundantly  testify.      Indigestion  depresses 
emotions.     But  of  all  things  pure  air  and  an  abundance  of  it  excite 
emotions.    As  soon  as  children  burst  loose  from  the  close  room,  and  the 
pure  air  strikes  their  Blood,  it  stirs  their  emotions ;  this  makes  them 
breathe  still  more  and  better,  and  they  become  more  noisy.    Impure 
air,  and  little  of  it,  will  keep  children  very  still ;  in  fact,  after  a  while, 
so  still,  they  will  not  even  breathe. 

SECTION  IV. 

Sensation:  Sensatory  Apparatus. 

1200.  Remark. — In  one  sense  THE  WHOLE  BODY  MAY  BE  CALLED  A 
SENSATORY  APPARATUS,  since  every  part  of  it  may  be  concerned  hi  excit- 

1196.  How  is  —  ?  1197.  What  does  —  ?  1198.  How  is  —  f  1199.  What  relations 
has  Emotory  apparatus  ?  1 200.  Why  may  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF    OKGANS    INTO    APP.       379 

ing  sensation,  and,  in  fact,  is  constantly  thus  acting ;  for  the  very  com- 
fortable sensation  of  health  is  merely  the  aggregate  result  of  the  healthy 
action  of  all  parts.  Only  a  part  of  the  organs  of  the  body  are  volun- 
tarily applied  to  receiving  sensations,  and  these  are  what  are  usually 
included  under  the  head  of  Sensatory  Apparatus. 

1201.  THE  VOLUNTARY  SENSATORY  APPARATUS  IN- 
CLUDES organs  of  sense,  nerves,  ganglia,  and  portions  of 
the  skeleton. 

1202.  Remark. — Though  the  organs  of  sense  are  the  most  conspic- 
uous parts  of  the  Sensatory  Apparatus,  they  are  by  no  means  the  only 
essential  parts.    Indeed,  EVERY  VARIETY  OF  SENSATION  MAY  BE  PRODUCED 
by  ganglia  alone,  but  cannot  be  by  nerves  or  organs  of  sense  alone, 
those  organs  being  merely  the  means  of  exciting  the  ganglia  to  action. 

1203.  Illus. — When  the  organs  of  sense  are  removed,  or  nerves 
cut  or  diseased,  the  ganglia  can  still  act  and  produce  sensations.     In 
dreams  also  the  ganglia,  being  active,  cause  sensations  of  all  kinds, 
objects  being  apparently  seen  and  directions  perceived  as  in  real  vision. 
In  delirium  tremens  unreal  sights,  sounds,  and  other  sensations  are  as 
vivid  as  if  there  was  a  cause  outside  the  brain.    The  sensations  are  real, 
of  course,  but  the  apparent  cause  is  not.     In  nervous  headaches  light 
appears  to  glimmer  before  the  eyes,  rumbling  sounds  are  heard  in  the 
ears,  etc.     In  these  cases  rest  and  a  restored  condition  of  the  digestory 
organs  will  often  remove  the  cause  that  is  acting  on  the  ganglia. 

1204.  Inf. — EXERCISE  OF  THE  SENSATORY  APPARATUS  INCLUDES  that 
of  its  ganglia  and  nerves,  as  well  as  that  of  the  organs  of  sense. 

1205.  THE  EXQUISITE  SENSATIONS  that  result  from 
the  proper  culture  of  the  senses  are  CHIEFLY  DUE  to  the 
proved  condition  of  their  ganglia  and  the  mind. 

1206.  Illus. — IMPERFECT  MELODY  may  be  the  fault  of  the  ear  alone, 
but  the  CHARMS  OF  HARMONY  depend  upon  the  relations  between  the  gan- 
glia and  mind ;  melody  may  be  appreciated,  and  harmony  not  be.  Col- 
ors may  be  accurately  distinguished,  yet  their  most  exquisite  blending 
cause  no  especial  delight,  on  account  of  defect  hi  the  ganglia. 

1207.  THE  VOLUNTARY  SENSATORY  APPARATUS  may 
be  subdivided  into  as  many  kinds  as  there  are  organs 
of  sense,  viz.,  six ;  and  the  appropriate  exercise  of  each 
develops  its  perfection,  both  in  skill  and  in  affording 

1201  What  does  -  ?  1202.  How  —  ?  1203.  When  do  ganglia  act?  1204.  What 
does  _  ?  1205.  To  what  are  —  ?  1206.  What  said  of  —  ?  1207.  How  divide  —  ? 


380  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

pleasure,  by   securing   a   proper  circulation   of   Blood 
through  it. 

1208.  Remark. — As  the  ganglia  of  the  senses  (SENSORITTM)  are  near 
the  other  brainial  ganglia,  and  in  relation  with  them,  it  is  not  strange 
that  their  activities  mutually  influence  each  other,  since  if  activity  of 
one  class  of  ganglia  solicits  Blood  to  itself  it  would  easily  be  turned 
from  that  channel  to  another  near  by.     Hence,  to  address  the  senses, 
and  arouse  the  circulation  toward  their  ganglia,  is  to  advance  one  step 
toward  arousing  the  other  ganglia ;  and  as  the  senses  are  always  open 
to  attack,  or  solicitation,  one  of  the  best  ways  of  reaching  the  inatten- 
tive mind  with  instruction  is  often  through  the  senses,  as  they,  espe- 
cially that  of  hearing,  have  a  very  intimate  relation  to  the  emotions,  and 
these  may  be  easily  awakened  through  the  portals  of  the  ear.     So  also, 
through  the  sensatory  and  emotory,  the  intellectory  ganglia  are  aroused. 

1209.  Inf. — When  children  are  listless,  let  them  sing  some  lively 
song ;  the  tones  heard,  the  air  inspired,  and  the  exercise  enjoyed,  will 
quicken  the  Blood  through  all  the  ganglia.     For  this  purpose,  object- 
teaching  must,  of  course,  be  admirably  adapted. 

SECTION  V. 
JB.  Circulation :  B.  Circulatory  Apparatus. 

1210.  THE  CAPILLARIES,  VEINS,  HEARTS,  ARTE- 
KIES,  and  incidentally  the  Lymphatics,  are  but  parts 
of  a  whole,  adapted  to  keep  the  Blood  in  rapid  motion 
through  every  organ  of  the  body,  and  very  frequently 
expose  it  to  the  action  of  the  air  in  the  lungs. 

g  £.  1211.  THE  CIRCULATORY  AP- 

^.  <£  PARATUS  is   DIVISIBLE   into  the 

V  pulmonary  or  respiratory  and  the 

£>•  aa     systemic ;  each  is  constituted  of 

Ai.r  b     a  heart,  arteries,  capillaries,  and 

veins,  both  sets  being  required 

•A  '^        to  complete  a  circuit,  as  shown 

^     H  'd  ky  adjoining  table  of  initials. 

1212.  THE  SYSTEMIC  CIRCU- 
LATION MAY  BE  SUBDIVIDED  according  to  the  ten  kinds 
of  apparatus ;  for  practical  purposes,  however,  it  may 


1208.  What  said  of  the  —  ?    1209.  What  said  of  singing?    1210.  What  said  of  — 
1211.  How  is  -  ?    1212.  How  may  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF    ORGANS   INTO   APP.       381 

better   be  divided   into   digestory,   brainial,   muscular, 
bronchial,  cutaneous,  and  renal. 

1213.  Remark. — Of  course,  if  one  part  of  an  apparatus  requires 
more  Blood  than  usual,  all  parts  of  it  will,  and  it  will  be  philosophical 
and  correct  to  suppose  that  Blood  will  in  such  cases  be  supplied  to  all 
parts  if  to  any,  as  otherwise  action  could  not  take  place ;  yet  THE  LATTER 

DIVISION  IS  MOST  PRACTICAL. 

1214.  THE  DIGESTORY  DIVISION   OF  THE   SYSTEMIC 
CIRCULATION  is  peculiar  in  this,  that  the  Blood  flowing 
through  it,  and  that  from  the   spleen,  does   not  pass 
directly  to  the  lungs,  but  is  first  circulated  through  the 
liver. 

1215.  THE    MUSCULAR  AND    CUTANEOUS    DIVISIONS 
have  the  same  general  branches,  which  should  be  the 
case,  since  the  activity  of  the  muscles  is  attended  with 

.  the  production  of  heat,  which  should  be  lost  through  the 
skin ;  and  therefore  the  exercise  of  the  muscles  brings 
Blood  to  themselves  and  the  skin  at  the  same  time. 

1216.  THE   BRONCHIAL  DIVISION  must  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  pulmonary  circulation. 

1217.  Remark. — It  MUST  BE  REMEMBERED  that  the  bronchial  artery 
arises  from  the  systemic  aorta,  and  opens  into  the  nutrient  capillaries 
of  all  parts  of  the  lungs,  which  may  thus  be  overcharged  with  systemic 
Blood,  limiting  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  air,  as  well  as  tending 
to  excite  disease  in  their  inner  surface  membrane  (bronchitis),  in  their 
outer  surface  membrane  (pleurisy,  pleuritis),  or  in  the  substance  of  the 
lung  (pneumonitis),  in  accordance  with  the  natural  divisions  of  the  bron- 
chial artery  and  its  capillaries. 

1218.  THE  BRAINIAL  DIVISION  MAY  BE  SUBDIVIDED  in 
accordance  with  the  classes  of  ganglia  that  it  supplies. 

1219.  Inf.— (I.)  Increased  circulation  through  one  division  only  of 
the  systemic  circulation  must  be  attended  with  diminished  circulation  in 
one  or  all  of  the  others.  (2.)  If  Blood  is  required  in  large  quantities  in 
one  it  should  not  be  directed  to  another.  (3.)  If  Blood  is  shut  out  from 
one  it  must  overcharge  some  others.  (4.)  The  action  of  the  heart  must 
harmonize  with  the  conditions  of  the  other  parts  of  the  circulation. 


1213.  Why  is  -  ?  1214.  What  peculiar  in  —  ?  1215.  What  said  of  —  ?   1216.  What 
said  of  -  ?    1217.  What  —  ?    1218.  How  —  ?    1219.  Inf. 


382  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

1220.  /««*.— (1.)  Digestion  is  frequently  attended  with  chilliness; 
brainial  activity,  with  cold  feet.     (2.)  Persons  should  not  bathe  nor  ab- 
stract the  mind  during  digestion,  etc.     (3.)   If  the  skin  contracts,  the 
Blood  overcharges  the  brain,  air  or  digestory  passages,  causing  death, 
colds,  or  derangement  of  the  bowels.     (4.)   The  activity  of  any  part 
quickens  the  pulse. 

1221.  Remark. — If  it  is  remembered  that  THE  SKIN  SHOULD  CONTAIN 
one  third  of  the  Blood,  the  effects  of  its  exposure  till  its  Blood  is  driven 
inward  will  not  be  surprising ;  they  would  be  worse  and  more  often  seen 
were  it  not  for  the  friendly  office  of  the  kidneys,  that  rapidly  remove 
water  from  the  Blood,  reducing  its  quantity  and  increasing  the  amount 
of  heat  producible  by  it.     But  the  waste  substance  the  skin  ought  to 
remove,  must  in  this  case  be  eliminated  by  the  air  or  digestory  passages, 
overtasking  them,  or  it  must  remain  in  the  body,  oppressing  all  parts, 
especially  the  brain ;  both  evils  result  to  a  degree.     Hence,  checking  the 
circulation  through  the  skin  is  the  greatest  of  evils,  and  to  keep  it  warm 
is  the  most  important  of  rules.     It  will  also,  if  the  facts  of  ^f  1217  are 
considered,  appear  natural  that  when  the  Blood  is  driven  in  from  the 
skin,  it  should  engorge  the  lungs,  as  they  can  most  readily  allow  it  a 
place,  the  digestory  canal  being  next  in  order,  and  the  brain  last.     It 
will  also  be  most  likely  to  distend  those  parts  first  that  are  most  active, 
as  hi  winter  the  lungs,  in  summer  the  digestory  canal,  producing  cough 
in  one  case,  bowel  affections  in  the  other ;  and  will  also  be  most  apt  to 
distend  parts  diseased,  they  not  being  able  to  resist  the  pressure. 


SECTION  VI. 

JW.  Circulation :  JV.  Circulatory  Apparatus. 

1222.  Remark. — IT  MUST  HAVE  BEEN  ABUNDANTLY  EVIDENT  DHRING 
THE  STUDY  OF  THE  ORGANS,  that  they  require  different  quantities  of  Blood 
at  different  times ;  and  now  it  is  clearly  seen  that  while  the  Heart  drives 
out  the  Blood  through  a  single  artery  and  its  branches  toward  all  organs, 
there  is  need  that  its  flow  be  increased  and  diminished  through  the  dif- 
ferent branches  at  different  times.     It  is  also  important  that  the  ten- 
dency of  the  Blood  to  flow  to  or  from  parts  should  at  times  be  resisted. 

1223.  Inf. — When  the  cold  acts  upon  the  skin,  and  drives  the 
Blood  inward,  it  should  be  forced  outward  again. 

1224.     There  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  THE 

SYMPATHETIC  OB  GANGLIONIC  NEEVOUS  SYSTEM  (Fig.  1 92) 


1220.T11UB,  1221.  What— ?  Wfcat  said  of  Blood  driven  In  from  skin?  1122.  What 
—  ?    125*4.  How ig— ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF    ORGANS   INTO    APP.       383 

is  CHIEFLY  OF  USE  in  regulating  the  flow  of  Blood  in 
accordance  with  the  need  of  parts. 

1225.  Illus. — When  cold  first  acts  on  the  skin  of  a  healthy  person, 
it  is  blanched  for  an  instant,  then  flushed. 

1226.  THE  DESIRED  OBJECT  CAN  BE  GAINED  by  en- 
largement of  the  capillaries  of  a  part,  and  by  a  more 
rapid  motion  of  the  Blood  through  them. 

1227.  The  degree  of  perfection,  and  THE  ENDURANCE 

WITH   WHICH   THE  CIRCULATION  CAN  BE  REGULATED,  WILL 

DEPEND  upon  the  constitution  and  health  of  the  person. 

'  1228.  Illus. — A  person  was  observed  in  Vermont  sitting  still  in  very 
cold  weather  out  doors,  and  perspiring  freely  though  thinly  clad.  He 
said  he  never  felt  cold.  A  man,  fatigued  by  labor,  came  out  of  the 
woods,  was  struck  by  a  cold  blast,  and  fell  from  his  load  dead  before  he 
had  time  to  speak. 

1229.  Remark. — It  is  not  THE  CONTRAST  OF  COMING  FROM  A  WARM 
ROOM,  nor  because  a  person  is  hot,  that  causes  him  to  take  cold  when 
coming  into  cold  fresh  air ;  but  the  bad  air  of  the  room  has  exhausted 
him,  and  the  cold  is  taken  before  he  leaves  the  warm  room.  Let  him 
clothe  warmly  and  breathe  the  fresh  air  as  speedily  as  possible. 

1230.  ONE  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  LAWS  OF  HEALTH 
is,  preserve  an  equable  circulation  of  Blood  in  the  body, 
especially  in  the  skin. 

1231.  Remark. — It  has  been  said  that  if  a  person  should  keep  his 
head  cool,  the  skin  warm,  the  bowels  daily  active,  and  a  clear  conscience, 
he  would  live  forever.     Nobody  has  disproved  it. 

1232.  Inf. — IF  A  PERSON  is  EXHAUSTED  by  fatigue,  sickness,  loss 
of  sleep,  or  in  any  manner,  it  MUST  BE  EVIDENT  that  reaction  cannot 
take  place  energetically  nor  for  any  considerable  length  of  time,  and 
that  therefore  he  should  not  then  expose  the  skin  to  the  cold ;  that  if  he 
has  been  exercising  vigorously  and  sits  in  a  breeze,  especially  if  his  skin 
or  clothing  is  moist  with  perspiration  or  otherwise,  his  health  is  endan- 
gered ;  that  he  should  not  bathe  with  cold  water  when  fatigued,  etc. 

1233.       To    SUSTAIN   A   LARGE    CIRCULATION  OF  BLOOD 

THROUGH  ANY  PART,  the  temporary  action  of  the  stimu- 
lated nervous  centres  must  not  be  relied  upon ;  but  by 

1225.  Effect  of  cold?    1226.  How  can  -?    122T.  On  what  will  -?    1228.  Illus. 
1229.  What  said— ?  1230.  What—  ?  1232.  What— ?  1233.  What  necessary  —  ? 


384  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

gradually  acquired  habits  the  channels  for  the  Blood 
must  be  enlarged  and  an  EQUABLE  FLOW  of  it  thus  secured. 

1234.  Remark. — IT  is  OF  ESPECIAL  IMPORTANCE  is  CASE  OF  THE 
GANGLIA  OF  INTELLECTION,  that  by  frequent  and  regular  use  during  the 
long  period  of  growth,  the  paths  of  the  Blood  should  be  amplified,  and 
the  ganglia  acquire  an  aptitude  for  the  rapid  action  necessary  in  mathe- 
matical studies,  for  the  more  deliberate  uses  to  which  they  must  be  ap- 
plied in  the  study  of  the  languages,  and  for  the  observational  methods 
of  the  natural  sciences. 

SECTION  VH. 

Respiration  :  Respiratory  Apparatus. 

1235.  THE  ORGANS  CONJOINED  IN  RESPIRATION  par- 
take of  a  threefold  character;   1st,  those  that  circulate 
Blood;    2d,  those  that  receive  the  air;    3d,  those  that 
cause  the  air  to  pass  into  and  out  of  its  receptacles. 

1236.  Those  that   circulate    Blood  THROUGH  THE 
LUNGS  consist   of  a  Heart,   Arteries,   Capillaries,   and 
Veins ;  the  three  latter  are  parts  of  the  lungs. 

1237.  THE  LUNGS  ARE  ALSO  COMPOSED  of  air  pas- 
sages, elastic  tissue,  and  enclosing  membrane  (Pleura). 

1238.  Remark. — Though  the  LUNGS  ARE  USUALLY  SPOKEN  OP  and 
considered  as  receptacles  of  air,  they  are  equally  such  of  the  Blood,  and 
the  quantity  of  it  that  passes  through  the  lungs  is  even  more  startling 
than  is  the  amount  of  air  breathed.  More  than  a  barrel  of  Blood  per 
hour,  night  and  day,  is  driven  through  the  lungs ;  and  if  there  is  a  fail- 
ure of  fresh  air  to  act  upon  it  for  the  brief  space  of  a  minute,  it  becomes 
so  much  loaded  with  poisonous  carbonic  acid  that  consciousness  begins 
to  waver,  and  in  another  minute  is  gone. 

1239.  THE  MEANS  CAUSING  THE  AIR  TO  PASS  INTO 
THE  LUNGS  are  the  walls  of  the  trunk,  the  contrary  ac- 
tion of  which,  with  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs,  CAUSES 
THE  AIR  TO  PASS  OUT  OF  THEM. 

1240.  THE  ELASTICITY  OF  THE  CARTILAGES  OF  THE 
TRUNK,  both  of  the  ribs  and  of  the  spinal  column,  assist 


1234.  What  is  —  ?    1285.   What  said  of  —  ?    1286.  What  circulate  Blood  —  ? 
1287.  How  —  ?    1288.  How  —  ?    1289.  What  said  of  —  ?    1240.  What  said  of — ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS    OF    ORGANS   INTO   APP.       385 

in  inspiration  and  expiration ;  for  when  the  chest  is  raised 
above  the  medium  point  the  cartilages  are  stretched  and 
tend  to  restore  the  thest,  causing  expiration,  and  when 
the  chest  is  drawn  below  the  medium  point  the  natural 
action  of  the  cartilages  tends  to  restore  the  chest  to  the 
medium  point,  and  inspire  air. 

1241.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  ENTIRE  TRUNK- WALLS 
are  at  times  engaged  in  respiration,  and  are  divisible 
into  two  sets,  those  of  inspiration  and  those  of  expira- 
tion.    One  set  and  the  diaphragm  enlarge  the  chest,  the 
diaphragm  at  the  same  time  pressing  down  all  the  or- 
gans beneath   it,  and  of  course   distending  the  walls 
of  the  abdomen ;  then  alternately  these  contract  in  har- 
mony with  another  set  of  intercostals,  and  the  chest  is 
drawn  down  at  the  same  time  the  organs  below  the  dia- 
phragm are  pressed  against  it  relaxed,  carrying  it  up, 
the  elasticity  of  the  lungs  expelling  the  air. 

1242.  THUS    THE    RESPIRATORY    APPARATUS    MAT    BE 

SAID  TO  INCLUDE  a  receptacle  of  air  and  Blood,  with  a 
sub-apparatus  on  each  side,  one  to  drive  the  latter  and 
the  other  the  former  through  the  receptacle. 

1243.  Inf. — Respiration  affects  all  the  digestory  organs,  and  the 
more  active  it  is  the  more  pressure  there  is  upon  them. 

1244.  Remark. — Of  course  all  these  different  parts  must  act  to- 
gether harmoniously,  and  all  the  muscles  concerned  in  the  ACTS  OP  IN- 
SPIRATION MUST   BE   DEPENDENT  on  the  same  centres  for  influence  to 
govern  their  movements.     (See  pneumo-gastric  nerve,  PI.  3*.) 

1245.  Remark. — RESPIRATION  is  the  most  important  of  the  Blood- 
making  functions ;  related  to  every  organ ;  eliminating  carbonic  acid, 
that,  retained,  is  an  oppressive  nervous  poison ;"  essential  to  heating  the 
body ;  by  its  abdominal  action  assisting  the  activity  of  the  digestory 
canal ;  most  likely  to  be  disturbed  and  to  suffer  from  exposure  of  the 
skin.     Is  it  not  astonishing  that  it  should  be  the  most  neglected  and 
abused  of  all  the  functions  ?    Many  forcibly  impede,  or  even  constrict 
it ;  most  supply  it  with  air,  especially  during  sleeping  hours,  that  is  ex- 
tremely impure,  or  quite  intolerable ;  while  few  so  well  appreciate  its 
character  as  to  fully  realize  the  importance  of  its  development,  often 


1241.  What  said  of  —  ?    1242.  What  may  -?    1243.  What  said  of  respiration? 
1244.  —  on  what  ?    1245.  What  farther  said  of  —  ? 


386  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

supposing  that  muscular  exercise  is  useful  chiefly  in  reference  to  the 
muscles  rather  than  by  increasing  respiration ;  while  in  fact  the  rela- 
tions of  air  to  the  Blood  are  more  constant,^piore  extensive,  and  more 
effective  upon  health,  than  those  of  any  other  thing,  even  food. 

The  Atmosphere. 

1246.  THE  ATMOSPHERE,  WHEN  PURE,  is  COMPOSED 
of  nearly  four-fifths  nitrogen,  one-fifth  oxygen,  a  trace 
of  carbonic  acid,  and  a  variable  quantity  of  watery  va- 
por, that  should  be  near  the  point  of  saturation. 

1247.  THE  TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE  af- 
fects its  action  in  the  lungs  in  two  ways.     The  colder 
the  air,  the  more  of  it  in  a  given  space,  and  the  more  it 
expands  in  the  lungs,  filling  its  cells  and  acting  more 
completely  on  the  Blood  circulating  about  them ;  the 
warmer  the  air,  the  less  of  it  in  a  given  space,  and  the 
less  it  expands  in  the  lungs. 

1248.     Inf. — In  winter,  when  more  heat  should  be  produced  in  the 
body,  the  air  inhaled  is  adapted  to  that  purpose. 

1249.  AIR  THAT  HAS  BEEN  BREATHED  once,  contains 
about  one-fifth  less  oxygen  than  pure  air ;  carbonic  acid, 
equal  to  the  loss  of  oxygen ;  a  variable  quantity  of  other 
impurities ;  and  is  saturated  with  moisture. 

1250.  THE  AMOUNT  OF  OXYGEN  LOST,  AND  CARBONIC 
ACID  GAINED,  by  the  breath,  depends  upon  the  purity 
and  temperature  of  the  air,  the  condition  of  the  Blood, 
the  activity  of  its  circulation,  the  vigor  of  respiration, 
and  the  health  of  the  body. 

1251.  Inf. — THE  AIR  IN  WHICH  A  PERSON  RESPIRES  is,  with  every 
breath,   becoming  unhealthy,  from   diminished  oxygen,   and  from  in- 
creased carbonic  acid,  various  other  impurities,  and  moisture. 

1252.  Remark. — From  the  skin  many  of  the  most  noxious  exhala- 
tions are  constantly  thrown  into  the   air.      Indeed,  from  this  source 
there  is  so  much  that  is  poisonous,  that  when  large  numbers  of  persons 
live  compactly,  disease  is  very  apt  to  be  developed,  as  on  shipboard,  in 
tenant-houses,  and  even  in  schools  and  colleges. 


1246.   How  is  — ?     1247.  What  said  of—?    1248.  Relation  of  air  to  winter. 
1249.  What  said  of  -  ?  1250.  What  said  of—  ?  1251.  What  said  of  -  ?  1252.  Remark. 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OP    ORGANS   INTO   APP.       387 

1253.  Inf. — The  evil  can  always  be  avoided  by  sufficient  attention 
to  cleanliness  and  ventilation,  especially  of  the  bed-clothing. 

1254.       IF  THE    SAME    BEEATH    IS    AGAIN  INHALED,  the 

oxygen  is  diminished,  and  the  carbonic  acid  and  other 
impurities  increased  still  further,  but  in  smaller  propor- 
tions, while  the  moisture  remains  the  same. 

1255.  Inf. — THE  SAME  AIR  SHOULD  NEVER  BE  INHALED  A  SECOND 
TIME,  since  it  can  neither  yield  the  appropriate  oxygen  to  the  Blood, 
nor  extract  from  it  the  noxious  carbonic  acid. 

1256.  Inf. — WHATEVER  DIMINISHES  THE  OXYGEN  of  the  air,  or  in- 
creases its  carbonic  acid,  makes  it  unhealthy. 

1257.  Him. — Charcoal  burning  in  a  room  has  often  destroyed  life; 
so  has  a  candle  in  a  small  room :  gas,  or  anything  burning  in  an  un- 
ventilated  apartment,  diminishes  the  oxygen  and  increases  the  carbonic 
acid. 

1258.  Remark. — ALLOWANCE  MUST  ALWAYS  BE  MADE  in  ventilating 
apartments  in  which  anything  is  burned.     To  heat  rooms  with  gas  with- 
out ventilation  is  very  unhealthy. 

1259.  MOISTURE  is  always  an  essential  part  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  should  exist  nearly  to  saturation. 

1260.  WHEN   ROOMS    ARE    HEATED   ARTIFICIALLY, 
moisture  should  be  evaporated  into  the  air,  or  it  will  be 
so  dry  as  to  exhaust  too  much  moisture  from  the  lungs. 

1261.  Remark. — DAMP  AIR  is  often  thought  to  be  injurious  to  the 
lungs,  and  cold  dry  air  is  welcomed  as  wholesome.  It  is  not,  however, 
dry  to  the  lungs  ;  its  frost  melts  and  saturates  the  air  ere  it  enters  the 
lungs.  Dampness,  if  cold,  is  not  obnoxious  to  the  lungs,  but  it  is  to  a 
thinly-clad  skin.  The  electric  condition  of  the  air  has  more  to  do  with 
its  uncomfortableness  than  its  dampness.  When  the  air  is  positively 
electric,  though  warm  or  cold,  it  will  be  bracing  and  refreshing,  while 
if  negatively  electric,  it  will  be  oppressive  and  unhealthy.  These  influ- 
ences are  by  some  attributed  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  ozone,  a  con- 
dition of  oxygen.  But  is  not  that  owing  to  electric  action  ?  One  thing 
is  certain ;  air  that  has  swept  over  ice,  and  become  positively  electric, 
produces  a  more  invigorating  effect  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  its 
purity  or  temperature.  The  northwest  wind  in  summer  comes  out  from 
the  great  polar  ice-box  bearing  healing  on  its  wings  and  strengthening 
the  well.  Rooms  ventilated  in  summer  with  air  passed  over  ice  are  not 


1253.    How  —  ?    1254.  What  —  ?    1255.   Should  —  ?    1256.  Inf.     125T.  Illus. 
1253  For  what-?  1259.  What  said  of-?  1260.  What  said  ?  1261.  What  said  of-? 


388  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

only  refreshingly  cool,  but  health-giving  to  a  remarkable  degree,  while 
the  same  temperatures  produced  by  the  negatively  electric  northeast 
winds  are  raw,  piercing,  and  unsalutary ;  the  same  is  true  of  cellars  and 
basements,  which  should  never  be  occupied  for  any  length  of  time,  the 
upper  rooms  being  the  most  healthy.  On  the  other  hand,  air  passed 
over  nearly  red-hot  surfaces  of  iron,  is  made  negatively  electric,  and 
will  be  wanting  in  ozone ;  the  air  will  be  called  burnt,  and  is  very  un- 
healthy ;  yet  furnaces  or  heaters  constructed  so  as  to  allow  air  to  pass 
over  very  hot  surfaces,  are  used  in  many,  yes,  even  in  most  educational 
rooms.  Such  apparatus  ought  to  be  discarded  at  once,  unless  disease 
is  a  blessing.  Is  it  not  possible  to  have  people  taught,  by  example  as 
well  as  by  precept,  the  true  office,  importance,  and  relations  of  air,  the 
choicest  gift  of  Divine  Benevolence  ? 

12G2.  VARIOUS  IMPURITIES,  ARISING  FROM  OUT-DOOR 
CAUSES,  are  found  in  the  air  at  various  times ;  sewers, 
marshes,  etc.,  are  such  sources,  while  unknown  causes 
of  disease  often  infect  limited  or  extensive  localities. 

1263.  VENTILATION,  OR  PURITY  OF  AIR,  HAS  REFER- 
ENCE to  various  things  :  1st,  Locality,  to  be  selected  or 
made  free  from  impurities  ;  2d,  Houses,  in  all  their  parts, 
to  be  constructed  so  as  to  allow  free  passage  of  air 
through  them  without  exposing  any  one  to  a  draft ; 
3d,  The  air  to  be  made,  or  preserved,  positively  elec- 
tric ;  4th,  Air  should  be  kept  moist,  and  free  from  dust ; 
5th,  Clothing,  bedding,  etc.,  should  be  often  cleaned,  and 
very  often  aired ;  6th,  The  lungs  themselves  should  be 
often  thoroughly  ventilated  by  deep  inspiration  and 
expiration.  In  brief,  there  must  be  thorough  ventilation 
of  outdoors,  indoors,  and  the  lungs. 

1264.  nius. — ETHER  INHALED  ONE  EVENING  was  perceived  in  the 
breath  the  next,  after  active  exercise ;  showing  that  air  may  remain  a 
long  tune  hi  the  outskirts  of  the  lungs  during  quiet  breathing. 

1265.  Inf. — It  is  evidently  important  that  THE  AIR  SHOULD  BE  VERY 
PURE  AND  QUITE  COOL  during  the  quiet  breathing  of  sleep,  in  order  to 
effect  as  thorough  a  ventilation  as  possible  in  the  lungs,  and  that  deep 
expiration  and  inspiration  should  be  made  when  a  person  first  awakes. 

1266.  Remark. — There  need  be  no  fear  of  A  COLD,  or  other  harm, 
BEING  TAKEN  DURING  THE  NIGHT,  from  cold  or  damp  air,  provided  it  does 

What  said  of  air  passing  over  ice?  Red-hotiron?  1262.  What  said  of-?  12C3.  To 
what  does— ?  1264.  What  said  of  —  ?  1265.  »Yhen  should  — ?  1268.  How  prevent  — • 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS   OF    ORGANS    INTO    APP.       389 

not  draft  over  a  person,  and  the  skin  is  properly  clad.  It  is  only  in  the 
case  of  infants,  the  aged,  or  the  sick,  when  heat  enough  cannot  be  pro- 
duced in  the  lungs  to  equal  that  which  cold  aic  would  take  from  them, 
that  they  cannot  with  safety  be  allowed  to  receive  cold  air.  It  should 
then  be  warmed,  but  always  pure.  Nothing  can  be  worse  than  impure 
air.  Its  influence  is  illustrated  by  drowning.  (See  Ap.  0.) 

Vocal  Apparatus. 

1267.  THAT  THE   AIR  EXPELLED  FROM  THE  LUNGS 
MAY  BE  AUDIBLE,  it  must  be  thrown  into  vibrations,  and 
for  this  purpose  must  issue  in  a  rapid,  impulsive  current. 

1268.  VIBRATION  CAN  ONLY  BE  PRODUCED  by  consid- 
erable pressure  upon  the  air  emitted,  to  effect  which  the 
air-passages  must  be  closed  hastily,  and  suddenly  opened. 

1269.  BY  RAISING  THE  WINDPIPE,  closing  it,  and  at 
the  same  time  compressing  the  chest,  the  air  in  the  lungs 
is  forced  upward  against  the  epiglottis,  the  raising  of 
which,  or  the  dropping  of  the  windpipe,  will  allow  the 
air  to  gush  out  with  a  forcible  current ;  one  process. 

FIG.  250.  1270.  THE  SEC- 

OND PROCESS  CON- 
SISTS in  throwing 
the  jet  of  air  into 
vibrations,  which 
is  accomplished  in 
the  larynx. 

1271.  THE  LAR- 
YNX IS  CONSTRUCT- 
ED of  framework, 
muscles,     nerves, 
and   a   lining    of 
blood-tubes. 

1272.  THE 

FRAMEWORK  IS 
CONSTRUCTED  of 


1267.  What  necessary  —  ?    1268.  How  can  -  ?    1269.  What  done  —  ?    1270.  In 
what  does  — ?    1271.  How  is  —  ?    1272.  How  is  —  V 


390  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

five   cartilages,   including  the  epiglottis.      The    lower, 
called  the  cricoid,  is  shaped  in  front  like  a  ring  of  the 
windpipe,  but  instead  of  being  open  behind  it  is  closed 
and  broad,  rising  up  as  shown  by  4,  Fig.  250.     At  the 
FIG  251          upper  edge  two  small  triangular  carti- 
lages, called  Arytenoid,  5,  are  jointed  in 
such  manner  that  they  can  move  forward 
and  backward,  and  toward  and  from  each 
other.     A  fourth   cartilage,  called  the 
thyroid,  is  large,  forming  the  prominence 
of  the  throat,  and  overrides  the  cricoid. 
In  Fig.  250  one  half  is  represented  as  if 
turned  forward,  1  being  the  inner  sur- 
face, and  3,  the  point  where  it  is  joint- 
ed to  4 ;  2  is  its  upper  horn ;  6,  epiglottis, 
7,  turned  up  to  show  14. 
Fig.  251.    Side  view  of  larynx.     8,  trachea;  7,  crycoid;   6,  thyroid; 
5,  membrane ;  1,  2,  3,  4,  hyoid. 

1273.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  LARYNX  are  very  well 
shown  by  9,  10, 11, 12,  13, 14,  15,  Fig.  250,  their  use  be- 
ing to  move  the  arytenoid  and  thyroid  upon  the  crycoid, 
that   is,  the   immovable  part  of  the  larynx;  12  is  not 
well  represented ;  it  stretches  across  more  nearly  hori- 
zontal than  it  appears  to,  leaving  but  a  small  aperture, 
like  a  button-hole,  between  it  and  its  fellow.  . 

1274.  THE  MEMBRANE  LINING  THE  LARYNX  is  con- 
tinuous with  that  of  the  pharynx  and  that  of  the  wind- 
pipe, being  somewhat  thickened  where  it  covers  12,  thus 
forming  the  vocal  cords,  as  the  edges  of  the  narrow  pas- 
sage are  called.     (See  Pis.  16,  19,  22,  and  29,  PI.  30.) 

1275.  BY  THE    ACTION  OF  THE  MUSCLES   OF  THE  LAR- 
YNX the  vocal  cords  can  be  made  more  or  less  tense,  and 
more  or  less  removed  from  each  other  at  their  back  part, 
enlarging  or  diminishing  the  size  of  the  slender  trian- 
gular aperture  between  them. 


1273.  What  said  of  —  f    1274.  What  said  of  —  ?    Can  a  tremulous  motion  be  felt 
In  the  larynx  when  speaking  ?    1275.  What  effected  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF    ORGANS    INTO   APP.       391 

1276.  The  air  gushing  between  the 
vocal   cords  is  thrown  into  vibrations, 
and  all  THE  VOWEL-TONES  OP  THE  VOICE 

ARE  THUS  PRODUCED. 

Fig.  252.  Upper  view  of  and  through  the  larynx. 
1,  2,  thyroid ;  3,  vocal  cords ;  4,  glottis,  or  opening 
between  3 ;  5,  arytenoides ;  6,  muscle. 

1277.  THE  THIRD  PROCESS  CONSISTS  in  the  modula- 
tions of  the  tones  and  in  articulations  of  the  breath, 
which  are  produced  by  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  front 
mouth,  these  being  entirely  under  mental  control. 

1278.  THE  APPARATUS  OF  SPEECH  MAY  BE  CLASSED 
under  three  heads,  Detonator^  Intonatory,  and  Articu- 
latory^  each  of  which  requires   distinct  attention  and 
exercise. 

1279.  THE  FORMER  TWO  ARE  ASSOCIATED  in  breath- 
ing, and  should  therefore  be,  as  they  are,  associated  with 
the  same  involuntary  nervous  centres  (see  Fig.  192)  ; 
hence  they  work  easily  together. 

1280.  It    IS   TO    BE   PARTICULARLY   NOTICED   that   the 

latter  is  not  in  any  involuntary  action  associated  with 
the  former  two,  but  that  there  is  a  converse  relation. 

1281.  Him. — When  the  mouth  is  in  use,  it  is  naturally  associated 
with  the  pharynx  and  oasophagus,  and  the  larynx  is  to  be  closed  while 
what  is  swallowed  passes  over  it. 

1282.  Inf. — Articulate  speech  is  not  therefore  natural,  but  is  an 
invention  of  man,  and  can  exist  only  where  there  is  a  mind.    Animals 
do  not  speak  articulately,  not  because  they  have  not  articulating  organs, 
out  because  they  have  not  mind :  all  the  articulating  details  must  be 
attended  to  by  the  mind. 

1283.  Remark. — NATURAL  SPEECH,  that  of  the  emotions,  is  merely 
that  of  detonation  and  intonation  (naturally  associated),  except  so  far  as 
acts  of  singing  are  concerned,  or  the  mere  opening  of  the  mouth,  as  in 
lowing,  bleating,  etc.     Hence  it  will  be  noticed  that  stammerers  can  sing 
unhesitatingly,  because  the  mouth  is  open  in  natural  harmony  with  the 
action  of  the  intonatory  and  detonatory  organs.     It  is  also  noticeable 
that  the  best  singers  often  do  not  articulate  well. 


1276.  How  are  —  ?    1277.  —  in  what?    1278.  How  may  —  ?    1279.  How  are  —  ? 
1280.  What-?  1281.I11US.   1282.  Inf.    1283.  What  said  of  —  ? 


392  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

1284.  Inf. — THE  CHIEF  DIFFICULTY  is  PERFECTING  SPEECH  will  be  in 
exercising  the  articulatory  organs,  and  harmonizing  their  action  with 
that  of  the  other  two  classes,  as  it  must  be  done  by  the  control  of  the 
will  unassociatcd  with  the  assistance  of  any  involuntary  centres. 

1285.  Remark. — As  the  detonatory  and  intonatory  organs  are  con- 
trolled by  involuntary  centres,  associated  intimately  with  the  emotions, 
these  must  be  active  in  order  THAT  SPEECH  MAY  BE  FORCIBLE. 

1286.  Inf.— To  read  or  speak  with  effect,  a  person  must  feel  the 
sentiment  he  utters. 

1287.  Remark. — ANY  PERSON  CAN  ACQUIRE  the  power  of  calling  up 
at  will  the  emotions  he  desires  to  have ;  the  gestures  of  emotions  will  ex- 
cite them ;  thinking  of  emotional  subjects  will  also  excite  them,  etc.,  pro- 
vided the  circumstances  are   favorable :    when  a  thunder-storm  is  ap- 
proaching, some  persons  will  be  very  much  depressed,  and  cannot  over- 
come their  feelings ;    other  electrical  conditions  of  the  atmosphere 
exhilarate  the  emotions.     Again,  they  are  depressed  by  indigestion,  de- 
rangement of  the  liver,  etc ,  while  they  are  exalted  by  health  and  pure 
air ;  which  facts  show,  that  the  emotions  on  the  one  hand  are  subject 
to  the  control  of  the  mind,  and  on  the  other  are  dependent  upon  their 
appropriate  ganglia,  which  are  acted  upon  by  all  the  other  ganglia  of  the 
brain,  and  of  course  directly  or  indirectly  by  all  parts  of  the  body,  and 
the  influences  acting  upon  or  through  them.     Therefore  the  mind  can 
control  the  emotions  by  controlling  the  agencies  that  affect  them. 

1288.  IF  SPEECH  is  DEFECTIVE,  the  precise  cause  is 
to  be  observed  and  the  particular  difficulty  removed  or 
overcome  by  exercise. 

1289.  Illus. — If  a  person  stammers,  he  must  be  induced  to  speak 
with  the  mouth  open ;  if  he  lisps,  let  him  read  and  speak  frequently 
with  his  teeth  closed,  until  the  lisping  habit  is  broken. 

1290.  Remark. — THE  ADVANTAGE  OF  EXERCISING  THE  VOCAL  APPA- 
RATUS by  speaking,  reading  aloud,  and  especially  singing,  does  not  de- 
pend upon  its  improvement  merely ;  singing,  in  particular,  causes  active 
respiration,  favorable  movements  of  the  digestory  canal,  excites  pleasant 
emotions,  drives  the  Blood  to  the  surface,  and  withdraws  it  from  the 
intellectory  ganglia.     Hence  it  is  an  admirable  preparation  to  sleep. 
Also  observe,  that  children  like  a  good,  vocal,  laughing  romp  just  before 
retiring,  exciting  perspiration,  good  humor,  and  full  respiration.    Laugh- 
ing is  excellent  for  breathing  and  good  humor ;  it  fattens.     Let  pupils 
have  a  good  hearty  laughing  exercise  occasionally ;  sing  often,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  evening. 


1284.  What  Is  —  »    1285.  What  necessary  —  T    123d.  lut    1287.  Whnt  can  —  ? 
1288.  What  -  ?    1289.  Illus.    1290.  What  is  —  ? 


SYSTEMATIC   SYNTHESIS   OF   ORGANS   INTO   APP.      393 

SECTION  VIII. 
Digestion :  Digestory  Apparatus. 

1291.  THE  OBJECT  AND  NATURE  OF  DIGESTION  SHOW 
that  its  organs  must  act,  and  of  course  be  arranged,  con- 
secutively, since  their  collective  use  or  function  is  to  dis- 
solve the  food  into  its  various  elements,  and  to  transform 
some  of  its  varieties  and  pass  them  into  the  Blood ;  three 
steps  of  one  process,  the  last  having  several  branches. 

1292.  TO   FORM    A    DIGESTORY    APPARATUS,    nothing 

therefore  remains  to  be  done  but  to  associate  the  organs 
with  common  nervous  centres,  related  also  to  all  parts 
of  the  body,  and  of  course  to  the  mind. 

1293.  ANTECEDENT,  WHOLESOME  COOKING,  is  for  the 
purpose  of  facilitating  digestion  by  grinding  the  food ; 
dissolving  it,  or  preparing  it  to  readily  receive  the  di- 
gestory  fluids;    pleasing  the  palate,  that  excites  the 
more  profuse  flow  of  those  fluids ;  and  changing  starch 
into  sugar. 

1 294.  Remark. — HEAT  AND  MOISTURE  COMBINED  are  the  chief  agents 
in  facilitating  solution.  At  a  high  temperature,  after  considerable  time, 
they  change  the  tough,  sinewy  tissue  of  meat,  into  gelatine,  and  par- 
tially or  wholly  dissolve  it,  freeing  the  elements  it  binds  together.  At 
a  higher  temperature,  in  a  closed  vessel  (Papin's  digestor),  they  will  dis- 
solve  bones  into  wholesome  food.  Heat,  by  swelling  the  kernels  of 
starch,  cracks  them,  and,  continuously  applied,  changes  part  of  it  into 
dextrine,  a  sweetish  substance,  on  the  way  to  become  sugar.  Heat 
affects  some  articles  prejudicially,  eggs,  cabbage,  etc.,  since  it  does 
not  facilitate,  but  retards  their  solution,  and  cannot  produce  favorable 
changes  in  them,  as  there  are  none  to  be  made,  but  does  produce  un- 
favorable  changes.  SCORES  OP  WHOLESOME  DISHES,  the  fundamental  ele- 
ments of  which  are  alike,  may,  by  various  combinations,  and  the  addition 
of  delicious  flavors,  be  provided  to  please  the  palate,  without  in  the  least 
diminishing,  but  rather  increasing,  their  digestibility  and  valuable  charac- 
teristics. In  this  art  of  combining  food  and  flavors,  and  applying  heat, 
the  whole  of  good  cookery  consists.  By  it  the  strictest  economy  and  the 
"  best  living  "  are  compatible  ;  indeed,  they  are  only  attainable  together. 
It  is  a  valuable,  a  manly  art.  Man  only  cooks.  Mind  only  could  in- 


1291.  What  do  —  ?   1292.  What  is  necessary  r-  ?    1293.  What  the  purpose  of  —  ? 
1294.  Effect  of  —  ?    What  said  of  —  ? 


394  DETAILED   SYNTHESIS. 

vent  cooking.  Man  only  of  all  creatures  has  the  mind  to  make  the 
greatest  of  inventions,  fire,  or  its  applications,  in  the  highest  degree 
humanizing ;  not  the  least  of  which  is  its  application  to  cooking.  Let 
it  be  always  wholesome,  always  palatable.  Economical  science  says, 
let  nothing  be  wasted:  the  brown  is  the  best  part  of  wheat;  sour, 
skimmed,  and  buttermilk  are  for  warm  weather,  and  being  animalized, 
should  not  be  fed  to  brutes,  etc.  Physiology  says  food  should  be  en- 
joyed.  Good  cooking  perfectly  harmonizes  the  two. 

SECTION  IX. 
Elimination  :  Eliminatory  Apparatus. 

1295.  THE  DIFFERENT  ORGANS  OF  THE  ELIMINATORY 
APPARATUS  do  not  act  together  to  accomplish  the  same 
precise  works ;  therefore,  in  one  sense,  they  should  not 
be  conjoined  in  one  apparatus. 

1296.  Yet,  W«EN  ANY  ONE  ELIMINATORY  ORGAN  CAN- 
NOT ACCOMPLISH  ITS  OFFICE,  it  will  be  attempted  by  one 
or  several  of  the  others ;  thus  showing  that  they  are  as- 
sociated indirectly  with  the  same  nervous  centres. 

1297.  THERE  is,  THEREFORE,  GREAT  PRACTICAL  BEN- 
EFIT in  grouping  the  perspiratory  glands  and  the  kid- 
neys as  special,  and  the  lungs,  liver,  and  digestory  canal 
as  additional,  organs  of  an  eliminatory  apparatus. 

SECTION  X. 
Modification :  Modificatory  Apparatus. 

1298.  THE  MODIFICATORY  ORGANS  can  only  be  con- 
sistently grouped  together  as  an  apparatus,  by  supposing 
that  the  spleen  and  lymphatic  glands  are  concerned  in 
the  production   or  perfection  of  Blood-cells.     That  is 
probably  the  case.     But  what  is  the  office  of  the  Thy- 
roid ?     Yet  to  class  together  various  organs  will  serve 
to  keep  them  in  the  memory,  and  whatever  their  special 
office,  they  certainly  in  some  way  modify  the  Blood. 

1295.  What  said  of—?    1296.  What  occurs  — ?    1297.  —  in  what?    1298.  What 
said  of  -  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 

SYNTHESIS  OP  APPARATUS  INTO  GROUPS  OR  MECHAN- 
ISMS :  FUNCTIONS  INTO  PURPOSES. 

Mentory  (Right  and  Left)  Sanguificatory. 

1299.  A   REVIEW   OF   THE   FUNCTIONS  WILL   SUGGEST 

that,  though  they  are  very  dissimilar  in  some  respects, 
several  have  a  similar  purpose,  and  may  therefore  be 
grouped  together.  Four  are  for  FIG.  253. 

the  purpose  of  perfecting  Blood; 
four  for  perfecting  mind ;  and  two 
for  the  purpose  of  circulating  Blood 
through  the  other  two  apparatus. 

1300.  Inf. — IT  is  EVIDENT,  THEREFORE, 
that  the  functions  exhibit  all  that  either  the 
Mind  or  Blood  can  be. 

1301.  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE 
APPARATUS  equally  exhibits  the 
grouping.  The  organs  of  four  kinds, 
Sanguificatory  or  Blood-making, 
are  grouped  about  or  appended  to 
the  Blood-tubes,  being  cavities  of 
various  forms,  in  the  walls  of  which 
the  Blood-vessels  are  distributed,  \f 
as  shown  by  Stm,  C,  I,  and  R,  of  the 
adjoining  figure,  while  the  organs 
of  the  mentory  apparatus  are  solid 
and  the  blood-tubes  extend  through 
them  in  every  direction. 


1299.  What  will— ?    1300.  What  is  —  ?    Describe  Fig.  258.    1301.  —  exhibits 
what? 


396  DETAILED    SYNTHESIS. 

1802.  Inf. — THIS  ARRANGEMENT  SHOWS  which  is  the  dependent 
group,  for  it  is  evident  that  the  Sanguificatory  is  appended  to  support 
the  mentory,  which  is  not  merely  for  the  purpose  of  superintending  the 
supply  of  the  former  with  proper  material ;  that  is  only  a  secondary 
purpose. 

1303.  Remark. — THE  WHOLE  OF  THE  BLOOD-PERFECTING  APPARATUS 
are  grouped  in  the  enclosing  trunk-walls,  where  they  are  suspended  to 
the  spinal  column  and  attached  to  the  circulatory  circuit  of  the  Blood 
by  appropriate  connections,  as  illustrated — with  the  exception  of  the 
perspiratory  tubes  that  are  located  in  the  skin. 

1304.       A  REVIEW  OF  THE  APPARATUS  WILL  ALSO  SHOW 

that  two  of  each  kind  of  the  mentory  must  be  construct- 
ed complete,  while  of  the  Blood-perfecting  one  of  each 
suffices. 

1305.  Remark. — EXCEPTIONS  to  the  preceding  remark  SEEM  TO  EX- 
IST in  the  lungs,  kidneys,  skeleton,  and  skin.  Of  the  lungs  and  kidneys 
it  may  be  said,  that  they  are  each  a  half  of  the  substance  necessary  to 
accomplish  their  functions ;  yet  they  are  not — one  is  larger.  The  spinal 
column  and  the  breast-bone  or  sternum  appear  to  be  composed  of  right 
and  left  halves,  neither  of  which  would  be  complete  without  the  other, 
yet  they  are  perfectly  symmetrical ;  the  lungs  and  kidneys  are  not.  The 
skin  appears  to  be  a  continuous  surface  across  the  middle  line,  yet  at 
various  places  it  shows  the  fact  of  its  intrinsic  double  character. 

1306.  THE  TWO  APPARATUS  OF  SIGHT  exhibit  a  re- 
markable deviation  from  the  rule,  exceedingly  interest- 
ing, as  explaining  a  phenomenon,  and  demonstrating  the 
FIG.  254.  unity  of  Mind,  and  that  it  is 

not,  though  its  apparatus   is, 
dual. 

1307.  THE  OPTIC  NERVES 
EXTEND  back  from  the  eyes, 
1,  2,  Fig.  254,  toward  each 
other,  till  at  3  they  meet,  and 
that  part  of  the  fibres  that 
commences  in  the  left  part  of 
the  right  eye  extends  across 
to  the  left,  and  those  fibres  that  commence  in  the  right 

1802.  What  does  —  ?  1308.  What  said  of  -  ?  1804.  What  will  -  f  1805.  What 
-  ?  1806.  What  said  of  —  ?  1807.  How  do  -  ? 


SYSTEMATIC    SYNTHESIS    OF   APP.    INTO    GROUPS.       397 

half  of  the  left  eye  extend  across  to  the  right,  interweav- 
ing with  each  other  at  3,  the  commissure. 

1308.  THE  NERVES,  THEREFORE,  COMMENCING  IN 
THE  RIGHT  HALF  OF  EACH  EYE,  connect  with  the  right 
ganglion,  4,  and  those  commencing  in  the  left  half  of 
each  eye,  connect  with  the  left  ganglion,  4. 

1309.  Remark, — Objects  on  the  right  affecting  the  nerves  in  the 
left  half  of  the  eyes,  cause  sensations  through  the  left  ganglion,  and 
objects  to  the  left  of  the  eye  excite  sensations  through  the  right  gan- 
glion. But  if  an  object  is  coming  from  the  right,  and  must  be  warded 
off  by  the  right  hand,  how  is  it  to  be  done  ? 

1310.  THERE  ARE  ALSO  NERVES  communicating  BE- 
TWEEN the  right  and  left  ganglia,  and  extending  from 
the  right  motory  ganglia  across  into  the  left  spinal  cord, 
and  from  the  left  ganglia  into  the  right  side. 

1311.  Remark. — Thus,  if  an  object  threatens  from  the  right,  the 
light  from  it  affects  the  left  side  of  the  eyes,  and  a  sensation  is  caused 
through  the  left  ganglion,  that  at  the  same  time  causes  an  action  across 
to  the  nerves  influencing  the  muscles  of  the  right  side,  and  thus  WARDS 

OFF  THE" DANGER. 

1312.  lllus. — A  MAN  MAY  HAVE  PARALYSIS  of  some  parts  upon  one 
side,  and  at  the  same  time  of  parts  on  the  other  influenced  by  the  same 
nervous  centres.     A  person  may,  by  disease,  as  is  frequently  the  case 
in  "  blind  headache,"  be  unable  to  see  more  than  half  an  object,  if  on- 
ly one  ganglion  is  affected ;  if  the  right  half  is  dark,  the  left  ganglion  is 
affected.     There  is  a  more  remote  cause,  however,  than  disease  of  the 
ganglion,  such  as  indigestion  or  nervous  exhaustion,  or  both  together : 
generally,  rest  is  the  only  remedy.     This  condition  sometimes  seems  to 
be  produced  by  the  weather — perhaps  its  electrical  conditions. 

1313.      It  IS  THEREFORE  LITERALLY  TRUE  for  the  HlOSt 

part,  and  ideally  wholly  so,  that  the  Mind  is  served  by 
double  sets  of  apparatus,  while  in  every  sense  the  Blood 
is  made  by  single  sets  of  apparatus.  It  is  also  certain 
that  the  double  sets  serving  the  Mind  are  so  intimately 
related  to  each  other,  and  so  associated,  that  in  health 
there  is  a  perfect  unity  of  mental  action  produced  by  and 
through  them. 


1308.  What  said  of  —  ?    1310.  Where  are  —  ?    1312.  How  may  —  ?    1313.  What 
is  —  ?    1314.  What  found  —  ?    1315.  What  do  —  ?    1316.  What  conclusion  reached  ? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SYNTHESIS  OP  GROUPS  INTO  MEMBERS. — BODY. 

PURPOSES  APPLIED.     MIND. 

1314.  WHEN  THE  TWO  GROUPS  OF  APPARATUS  ARE 
BROUGHT  TOGETHER,  they  will  be  found  perfectly  adapted 
to  each  other ;  the  trunk-walls  that  are  for  the  primary 
purpose  of  sustaining  the  head  are  exactly  adapted  to  en- 
close the  subsidiary  group,  and  can  perform  all  their  acts 
the  better  for  its  being  there. 

1315.  THE  TWO    GROUPS   BROUGHT   TOGETHER  IN- 
STANTLY EXHIBIT  five  kinds  of  members,  HEAD,  Neck, 
Trunk,   lower  extremities    and    upper    extremities,  to 
which  a  little  consideration  will  add  a  sixth,  the  larynx 
— and  thus  the  Body  stands  complete. 

1316.  Thus,  from  the  primary  Chemical  Elements, 
have  we  come  up  through   Organic  Elements,  Tissues 
and  Fluids,  Organs,  Apparatus,  Mechanisms,  Members, 
to  the  fully  developed  Body,  "  most  fearfully  and  won- 
derfully made," — fit  instrument  for  the  attainment  of  the 
highest  purposes.     But  how  shall  its  latent  powers  be 
developed?     What  shall  attune  its  lips  to  eloquence? 
What  shall  gather  wisdom  through  its  activities  and 
adaptation  ?     What  shall  provide  for  its  wants  under  all 
the  varied  circumstances  of  life  ?    To  the  Body  let  the 
Mind  be  added,  and  MAN  stands  forth  complete,  poten- 
tial to  the  development  of  all  his  powers,  and  to  the  in- 
vention of  whatever  is  necessary  to  aid  therein. 

Those  who  desire  to  read  upon  these  subjects  in  greater  detail,  are  referred  to 
Leidy's  splendid  work  on  Anatomy,  also  to  Harrison's,  and  to  the  admirable  Phy- 
siological works  of  Draper  and  Dalton.  They  maybe  had  of  the  publishers  of  this 
work,  at  a  discount  to  Teachers. 


APPENDIX. 


399 


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PQ 


£  alls 
Hrunk 

O  onteuts 


+          ( HEAD-walls 

W BAD     4  + 

ii  f  Contents  do. 


!t 

5§ 


^arynx 

8  tremities 
spper 


-^  ower  s  ^ 

+          J  Trunk-walls      |  ^ 
E-i  runk  -|          + 
+          f  Contents  do. 


•» 

21 


ii 


APPENDIX. 


A. 

a.  As  man  is  composed  of  Mind  and  Body,  Anthropology 
must  bridge  across  the  dividing  line  between  the  branches 
of  science  that  treat  upon  material  and  those  that  treat  upon 
immaterial  existences.  It  is  the  connecting  link  between  them. 

5.  Noology,  from  noos,  mind,  treats  upon  mind  in  general,  the 
mind  of  the  Deity,  Theology  ;  the  relations  of  mind  to  mind  in 
social  life,  Sociology  ;  as  well  as  of  the  human  mind,  Psychology; 
to  wit  : 


{Theology. 
Sociology. 
Psychology. 


c.  Psychology  is  embraced  under  Anthropology  ;  indeed,  it 
takes  hold  upon  Sociology,  while  on  the  other  hand  it  embraces 
all  of  Human  Biology,  though  usually  restricted  to  the  popular 
part  of  it.     For  better  illustrating  the  whole  subject,  let  the 
whole  field  of  the  sciences  be  presented  in  a  brief  view. 

d.  Ontology,  from  onto,  being,  and  logos,  is  the  name  given 
to  that  science  that  includes  all  the  sub-departments  of  sci- 
ence, treating  upon  the  nature  of  everything  that  exists,  or  has 
to,  a,  <m,  being.     It  corresponds  to  Pantology,  meaning  all  sci- 
ences. 

e.  Whatever  has  being  must  be  material  or  immaterial  ;  so 
Ontology  must  be  divisible  into  Cosmology,  from  cosmos,  matter, 
that,  treats  upon  all  material  existences,  andNoology,  that  treats 
as  said  above. 

f.  All  material  existences  must  either  exhibit  life  (organic), 
or  be  devoid  of  it  (inorganic)  ;  therefore  Cosmology  is  divisible 
into  Biology  and  Physics. 

g.  As  life  is  exhibited  by  Vegetables,  Animals,  and  Man,  Bi- 
ology is  naturally  subdivided  into  Human,  Animal,  and  Vege- 
table;  certain  distinctions  between  man  and  animals  exalting 
him  above  them. 

h.  Inorganic  matter  has  certain  properties  in  common  with 
organic  ;  for  instance,  it  exhibits  Gravity,  Astrowmy,  heat,  light, 
and  electricity,  Natural  Philosophy,  and  affinities,  Chemistry;  so 
that  Physics  is  also  naturally  subdivided  into  three  departments. 

i.  A  single  table  shows  the  subordinations  and  relations,  as 

follows  :  (See  page  402.1 


APPENDIX. 


401 


+   + 


8 

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ll    00 


o  r  o  a  o 

S5          S5          55 

A 


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M          B4^  +o 

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to  S^i§^ 

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^  S.2  o.g  S.2 


ONTOLOGY 


402 

Noology.    .....  ^  Sociology. 

Psychology. 


(  Human. 


f  Biology  -<  Animal. 

( Vegetable. 
I  Cosmology  4  Chemistry. 

[^  Physics  -<  Natural  Philosophy. 

(  Astronomy. 

ELEMENTARY  ....  Observation,  Language,  Mathematics,  Drawing. 

j.  Observation,  Language,  Mathematics,  and  Drawing,  have 
been  placed  below  the  table  as  Elementary,  only  to  be  so  re- 
garded to  a  limited  extent,  for  many  of  the  ideas  embraced  under 
those  heads  arise  from  the  study  of  the  highest  departments. 

k.  All  the  studies  of  the  table,  as  well  as  the  Elementary, 
have  a  Primary,  Academic,  Collegiate,  Philosophical,  and  Profes- 
sional aspect. 

I.  What  is  common  Geography  but  Pictorial  Ontology  ?  Is  not 
the  germ,  a  superficial  outline  or  taste,  of  all  the  sciences,  except 
perhaps  Psychology,  found  in  the  most  primary  Geography?  In 
one  sense  Psychology  is  not  there,  because  its  subject,  the  mind, 
cannot  be  pictured,  and  in  another  sense  it  is  found ;  but  Theo- 
logy is  illustrated  in  the  modes  of  worship ;  Sociology  is  shown 
in  the  pictures  of  capitols,  &c. ;  Human  Biology  is  found  in  the 
representation  of  the  races,  &c. 

m.  In  our  commonest  works,  therefore,  we  have  the  elements 
of  all  that  it  is  desirable  for  a  person  to  study ;  yet  objections 
are  sometimes  made  to  introducing  so  many  "ologies"  into 
schools,  when  in  fact  they  are  only  advanced  expansions  of  those 
in  use. 

n.  Again.  From  the  departments,  as  seen  above,  spring  all 
the  Professions :  from  Theology  the  Theological ;  from  Sociology 
the  Legal;  from  Psychology  the  Teachers  or  Professorial;  from 
Human  Biology  the  Medical ;  from  Animal  Biology  the  Veteri- 
nary Surgeons  and  Farriers ;  from  Vegetable  Biology  the  Hor- 
ticulturists ;  from  Chemistry  the  Architects,  Engineers,  Dyers, 
&c. ;  from  Natural  Philosophy  the  Machinists  ;  from  Astronomy 
the  practical  Astronomers,  the  Navigators,  Surveyors,  &c. 

o.  It  will  be  seen,  that  the  order  of  dependence  is  that  in 
which  the  topics  are  mentioned.  To  understand  well  any  one,  a 
knowledge  of  those  mentioned  below  it  is  essential.  Thus  a 
Farmer,  for  the  best  prosecution  of  his  labors,  requires  a  know- 
ledge of  the  constituents  of  his  soil  (chemistry),  what  promotes 
vegetation,  and  how  to  care  for  his  creatures  (vegetable  and  an- 
imal Biology) ;  and  as  himself  is  to  be  taken  into  the  account, 
to  be  sure  he  should  understand  Popular  Human  Biology.  In- 
deed, any  department  is  much  illuminated  by  light  reflected 
from  above  itself. 

p.   Human  Biology  cannot,  even  for  popular  use,  be  com- 

[See  page  404.1 


APPENDIX. 


403 


e 


'saomf 


i 


II  4* 


404  APPENDIX   B. 

pletely  studied  without  some  knowledge  of  Psychology,  because 
the  Mind  and  Body  are  so  intimately  associated  that  whatever 
influences  one  necessarily  affects  the  other. 

q.  It  will  also  be  perceived  that  a  thorough  acquaintance 
-with  all  the  Departments  of  the  Table,  fully  developed,  secures 
all  knowledge ;  for  outside  of  them  is  nothing,  and  under  these 
heads  all  things  will  necessarily,  naturally,  and  easily  fall.  Geo- 
logy is  but  Historic,  and  Physical  Geography  but  Comparative, 
Cosmology ;  History  falls  under  Sociology ;  Meteorology  and 
Moral  Philosophy  are  Comparative  Physics  and  Noology,  etc. 

r.  Anthropology,  as  has  been  seen,  is  not  a  new  department, 
but  is  made  up  of  two  of  them,  as  follows : 

(      Theology. 

NOOLOGY •?      Sociology. 

(  (  Psychology. 
ANTHROPOLOGY •< 

i(  Human. 
Animal. 
Vegetable. 

and  while  the  consideration  of  Psychology,  in  treating  upon  the 
science  of  Human  Biology  is  very  brief,  the  relations  of  the  mind 
are  of  such  importance,  that  the  little  that  is  introduced  is  of  the 
utmost  value,  and  the  true  name  of  the  science  upon  which  this 
work  treats  would  be,  Popular  Anthropology,  except  that  there 
is  not  so  much  said  upon  mind  as  that  name  given  would  neces- 
sitate. The  better  name  is  th#t  given  in  1T  24. 


(  Human, 

BIOLOGY  .  .  .  •<  Animal, 
(  Vegetabl 


ble,j 


B. 

PHYSIOLOGY, 

ANATOMY, 

HYGIENE, 

Pathology, 

Therapeutics, 

Materia-Medicdy 

Surgery. 


•  POPULAR. 
Professional. 


All  the  divisions  of  Biology  are  equally  divisible  into  the 
Popular  and  the  Professional.  In  Vegetable  Biology  there  is 
no  person  who  devotes  himself  exclusively  to  the  cure  of  dis- 
eases of  plants,  but  the  intelligent  Horticulturist  or  gardener 
may  well  be  styled  a  professional  man. 

The  Veterinary  Surgeon  is  one  who  devotes  himself  to  the  cure 
of  the  diseases  of  domestic  animals.  In  case  of  curing  diseases  of 
man,  animals,  or  vegetables,  the  questions  that  will  arise  will  be, 
the  condition  or  Pathology  of  the  diseased  parts ;  the  methods 
or  Therapeutics  of  curing  it ;  the  medicines  or  Materia-Medica 
that  will  be  useful ;  and  the  manipulations  or  Surgery  that  will 
be  necessary;  all  of  which,  to  be  done  skilfully,  presuppose 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  parts  in  health. 


APPENDIX     C,    D.  405 


C. 

A  singular,  striking  impression,  even  if  not  correct,  is  some- 
times admirably  adapted  to  impress  the  idea  it  is  used  to  illus- 
trate. u  John  barked  at  a  dog  "  will  excite  the  attention  of  a 
child,  and  impress  its  mind  with  the  grammatical  idea  it  is  used 
to  illustrate,  much  better  than  the  correct  form.  So  will  "  Little 
John  barked  at  the  big  dog,"  or  "  the  big  blue  dog."  Count  up 
the  ten  kinds  of  Apparatus  on  the  fingers,  "  to  keep  them  at 
the  fingers'  ends,"  or  u  to  show  why  there  are  ten  digits." 

A  figure  upon  a  blackboard,  if  a  little  grotesque  and  laugh- 
able, will  be  often  serviceable. 

Thus  break  up  monotony ;  make  sure  the  mind  is  active  to 
receive,  and  that  ideas  are  so  presented  that  they  are  sure  to 
enter  and  be  welcomed. 


D. 

Meaning  of  Train,  Educate,  Exercise. 

A  trained  man = educated  mind  +  exercised  body.  These 
words  are  not  always  used  in  their  proper  sense.  Education 
cannot  properly  be  applied  to  the  body,  nor  to  an  animal ;  train- 
ed may  be.  Exercise  can  better  be  applied  to  mental  activity, 
but  not  with  the  greatest  propriety.  It  should  be  restricted  to 
the  activities  of  the  body.  Nor  should  it  be  at  all  limited  to 
activity  of  the  muscles,  but  should  be  applied  to  the  activity  of 
all  parts :  the  exercise  of  the  brain,  or  of  the  stomach,  or  of 
the  lungs,  being  as  proper  expressions  as  exercise  of  the  mus- 
cles. Muscle  culture  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  physical  duties 
that  require  repeated  and  regular  exercise — brain  culture,  lung 
culture,  eye  culture,  and  that  of  some  other  parts,  being  even  of 
greater  consequence. 

External  World. 

But,  in  addition  to  the  training  of  man,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  training  him,  the  importance  of  arranging  properly  the  ex- 
ternal world  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  one  sense, 
the  training  of  man  will  provide  for  this  arrangement,  but  in 
another  respect  it  will  be  better  to  make  a  distinction,  as  it  will 
fix  upon  the  mind  precisely  what  is  to  be  done. 

Mind ;  Body ;  External  World. 

The  position  of  these  words  exhibits  the  relations  in  which 
they  stand.  The  Mind  exerts  a  double  influence,  upon  the  Body, 
and  through  it  upon  the  External  World.  So,  also,  does  the 
External  World  exert  a  double  influence,  upon  the  Body,  and 
through  the  Body  upon  the  Mind. 

Educated ;  Exercised ;  Arranged. 

The  above  three  words  express  what  should  be  done  in  order 
that  the  influence  of  Mind,  Body,  and  External  World  may  be 


406  APPENDIX   P. 

favorable  upon  each  other,  and  tend  to  promote  the  welfare  of 
man.     Again, 

Mind ;  Body ;  External  World, 

correspond  to  the  three  grand  divisions  of  science, 

N  oology,  or  Mental  Science ;  Biology ;  Physics, 

and 

Mind  Body  External  World 

Educated ;  Exercised ;  Arranged, 

correspond  to 

NOOLOGT  BIOLOGY  PHYSICS 

Developed ;  Practical ;  Applied. 

Another  view  will  still  better  illustrate  all  the  influences 
that  conduce  to  Man's 

Welfare  or  Wealth. 

The  ancients  fabled  that  Time,  personified  as  Saturn,  was  the 
Father  of  all  things,  or  Nature. 

Man,  composed  of  Mind  and  Body,  being  introduced,  not 
finding  the  world  adapted  to  his  liking,  at  once  applied  himself 
to  appropriate  and  improve  Nature  by  his  Labor,  thus  producing 
Eiches  with  which  to  assist  in  satisfying  both  his  Mental  and 
Physical  wants. 

Thus,  two  by  two,  one  material,  the  other  immaterial,  there 
are  six 


Elements 

of 
WEALTH 

or 
Human  Welfare, 


TIME, 

Nature. 

MIND, 

Body. 

LABOR, 

Eiches. 


Meaning  of  Riches. 

Eiches  is  not  here  used  to  signify  an  abundance  merely  of 
material  possessions,  but  all,  the  merest  trifle  as  well  as  the  most 
extensive  domains  that  man  can  obtain  by  appropriation  or  by 
the  improvement  of  Nature. 

Distinguished  from  Wealth. 

Wealth  is  not  used  in  the  same  sense  as  Eiches.  A  promi- 
nent and  important  means  of  enjoyment,  they  are  far  from  be- 
ing the  only  element,  or  even  the  chief  one,  since  Nature  and 
Mental  and  Physical  activity,  without  any  reference  to  increase 
of  Eiches,  are  directly  the  most  considerable  sources  of  happi- 
ness ;  as  Solon  says, 

"  The  m#n  who  boasts  of  golden  stores, 
Of  grain  that  loads  his  bending  floors, 
Of  fields  with  fresh' ning  herbage  green, 
Where  bounding  steeds  nnd  herds  are  seen, 
I  call  not  happier  than  the  swain 
Whose  limbs  are  sound,  whose  food  is  plain, 


Whose  joys  a  blooming  wife  endears, 

i  hours  a  smiling  offspring  cheers. 


Whose ' 


APPENDIX  D.  407 

Indeed,  it  is  evident  that  proper  occupation  of  Time,  ac- 
quaintance with  Nature,  education  of  Mind,  exercise  of  Body, 
skilful  Labor,  and  adequate  Kiches,  are  each  and  all  in  them- 
selves, and  collectively,  essential  to  our  welfare,  and  he  who  is 
best  in  each  of  these  respects  is  most  wealthy.  In  a  tabular 
view, 

Occupation  of          Time. 

Acquaintance  with  Nature. 


Essential  to  our  welfare  are 

Skilful  Labor. 

Adequate  Riches. 

Increase  of  Wealth. 

This  increase  of  wealth  is  not  only  to  arise  from  the  increase 
of  riches,  but,  and  chiefly,  from  the  increased  enjoyments  afford- 
ed by  Nature ;  for  while  each  breath  yields  a  rich  enjoyment  to 
mere  animal  health,  and  while  the  gorgeous  splendors  of  the 
sky,  the  sublime  beauty  of  the  rainbow,  the  roar  of  the  ocean, 
or  even  the  pensive  quiet  of  solitude,  may  awaken  a  measure  of 
delight  in  the  latent  soul  of  the  untutored  savage,  it  is  only  to 
the  cultivated  intellect,  the  fully  developed  mind  through  a 
properly  exercised  body,  that  Nature  becomes  fully  potential ;  it 
is  only  such  who  can  fully  realize,  wTith  the  poet, 

"  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods, 
There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore, 
There  is  society  where  none  intrudes, 
By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar. 
I  love  not  man  the  less,  but  nature  more ; 
For  these  our  interviews,  in  which  I  steal 
From  all  I  may  be  or  have  been  before, 
To  mingle  with  the  universe  and  feel 
What  I  can  ne'er  express,  yet  cannot  all  conceal." 

For  there  is  not  only  all  the  high  delight  experienced  by  the 
influences  of  nature  pouring  in  upon  a  finely  cultivated  mind, 
but  also  the  reaction  of  the  awakened  mind  searching  with  its 
philosophy  into  the  hidden  mysteries  that  underlie  the  marvels 
that  so  perplex  or  affright  the  ignorant. 

"  The  flow  of  riches,  though  desired, 
Life's  real  goods,  if  well  acquired, 
Unjustly  let  me  never  gain, 
Lest  vengeance  follow  in  their  train ; 
For  never,  sure,  shall  Solon  change 
His  truth  for  wealth's  most  easy  range, 
For  vice,  though  plenty  fills  her  horn, 
And  virtue  sinks  in  want  and  scorn  ; 
Since  virtue  lives  and  truth  shall  stand, 
While  pelf  etudes  the  grasping  hand." 

Elements  of  Wealth,  Bestowed,  Obtained. 

It  is  noticeable  that  some  of  the  elements  of  Wealth  are  be- 
stowed, and  some  the  result  of  effort ;  accordingly  the  six  can 
be  arranged  in  two  groups,  in  each  of  which  there  will  be  four, 
which  is  curious. 

Time  and  Nature,  equally  bestowed  on  all,  which  we  can 


408  APPENDIX   D. 

neither  increase  nor  diminish,  only  occupy  and  enjoy,  or  waste 
and  misemploy,  belong  entirely  to  the  first  group. 

Riches  and  Labor,  wholly  the  result  of  effort,  as  evidently 
belong  wholly  to  the  second  group. 

Educated  Mind  and  Exercised  Body  belong  to  both  groups. 
Mind  and  Body  undeveloped  belong  to  the  first  group,  for  they 
are  bestowed ;  developed  by  Education  and  Exercise,  they  be- 
long to  the  second  group,  for  they  are  then  the  result  of  effort. 
In  a  tabular  view  the  groups  of  elements  are  thus  presented : 

(Time. 
fgfas 

[  Riches. 

Attainable  Wealth  Unequal. 

As  Mind  and  Body  are  bestowed  unequally,  it  follows  that 
the  measure  of  Wealth  attainable  by  different  persons  will  be 
unequal. 

The  practical  fact,  however,  is,  that  most  of  the  inequality 
is  owing  not  to  the  inequality  of  bestowments,  but  to  the  non 
or  improper  use  of  them. 

No  one  thing  makes  a  greater  difference  in  the  Wealth  of 
men  than  the  manner  in  which  time  is  used.  To  one  man,  from 
morning  till  night,  each  moment  drags  its  flow  length  along ; 
while  to  another  the  dawn  never  comes  too  early,  and  twilight 
fails  to  close  his  busy  enjoyments.  Nearly  the  same  may  be 
said  of  Nature.  To  one  man  it  is  lessonless ;  while  to  another, 
the  first  blush  of  morning,  the  crimson  glories  of  evening,  the 
brightness  of  noonday,  and  the  majestic  darkness  of  midnight, 
are  alike  full  of  meaning.  He  finds  "  sermons  in  stones,  books 
in  brooks,  and  good  in  everything." 

Let  no  one  be  discouraged  because  genius  has  not  been  be- 
stowed upon  him  ;  let  him  use  that  he  has,  and  his  wealth  shall 
be  abundant. 

Educated  Mind,  Exercised  Body,  Essential  to  Wealth. 

Since,  for  a  proper  occupation  of  Time,  and  a  practical  ac- 
quaintance with  Nature,  an  Educated  Mind  and  Exercised  Body 
are  necessary,  and  also  for  the  application  of  Skilful  Labor, 
the  acquisition  and  enjoyment  of  Riches,  and  especially  to  coun- 
terbalance any  inequality  in  the  bestowment  of  mind  and  body, 
it  is  evident  that  Educated  Mind  and  Exercised  Body  are  the 
two  most  important  of  all  the  elements  of  Wealth,  those  two 
being,  in  fatt,  the  means  by  which  the  other  four  are  obtained 
and  enjoyed,  and  they  might  therefore  be  considered  as  the  pri- 
mary and  essential  basis  of  Wealth. 

How  shall  this  proper  Education  and  Exercise  be  accom- 
plished ?  is  therefore  a  momentous  question. 

A  partial  answer  is  obtained  from  a  very  interesting  fact  in 
regard  to  the  three  material  elements. 


APPENDIX    D.  409 

Double  Relation  of  Material  Elements. 

llMJli, 

(  IMMATERIAL 
ELEMENTS  OP  WEALTH  \ 

1  Material 


Two  relations  in  the  body.  The  brain  is  directly  associated 
with  the  MIND,  the  stomach  ministers  to  the  blood.  The  eye 
has  been  beautifully  called  the  window  of  the  SOUL,  the  lungs 
admit  the  vivifying  air  to  the  Wood.  Thus,  from  head  to  foot, 
each  part  of  the  body  may  be  classed  according  to  its  relations 

Riches  and  Nature  can  be  correspondingly  classed.  Food 
nourishes  the  Wood;  music  delights  the  MIND;  silk,  by  its  tex- 
ture, preserves  the  warmth  of  the  blood,  while  its  glossiness 
and  brilliant  colors  please  the  MIND.  The  rugged  mountain  and 
the  trembling  ocean  excite  emotions  of  sublimity  in  the  MIND, 
while  bracing  air  and  cool  water  depurate  and  refresh  the  blood. 

Through  the  six  channels  of  hearing,  seeing,  smelling,  tast- 
ing, touching,  and  the  muscular  sense,  the  mind  is  acted  upon, 
and  under  the  six  aspects  of  food,  water,  air,  clothing,  warmth, 
and  shelter,  the  blood  is  acted  upon.  In  tabular  view  as  follows  : 

f  HEARING. 

SEEING. 

MIND  through  the  channels    j  SMELLING. 
of  TASTING. 

RICHESANDNATURE 


•  Mood  under  the  aspects  of 

!  Warmth. 
[Shelter. 

Each  and  all  the  three  material  elements  of  "Wealth  can 
therefore  and  should  be  arranged  in  two  corresponding  classes, 
one  adapted  to  develop  and  improve  the  MIND,  and  one  adapted 
to  develop  and  improve  the  blood. 

Education  is  of  course  also  twofold.  The  world  at  large  says 
that  wheat  is  practical,  beef  is  practical,  the  pantry  is  practical; 
they  are  so  only  as  every  organ,  when  healthily  active,  conduces 
to  happiness  :  a  rose  is  practical  as  well  as  a  cabbage,  a  flower- 
yard  as  well  as  a  kitchen-garden,  a  parlor  as  well  as  a  dining- 
room,  a  library  as  well  as  a  larder,  the  labors  of  Praxiteles  and 
^Raphael  as  well  as  a  reaper  and  a  steam-plow.  Nor  is  the  sun, 
*that  shuts  in  our  knowledge  to  the  narrow  limits  of  daylight, 
any  more  practical,  though  he  melts  the  icebergs  and  makes  the 
corn  grow,  than  is  the  night,  which  lets  out  our  minds  from  this 
restricted  boundary  to  the  vastness  beyond  our  own  planetary 
system,  making  us  acquainted  with  the  boundlessness  of  space, 
and  the  immensity  of  God's  power,  leading  us  to  think,  that  if 
day  shuts  out  so  much  glory  which  is  revealed  by  night,  why 
may  not  life  shut  out  a  corresponding  glory,  which  shall  be 
revealed  by  .death. 

18 


410  APPENDIX   E,  F. 

E.  , 

It  was  the  custom,  but  a  few  years  ago,  to  write  and  lecture 
upon  medical  subjects  in  Latin,  or  a  jargon  so  called.  This  has 
left  an  incubus  upon  these  studies,  both  in  terms  and  style,  which 
the  French  teachers  a  long  time  since  discarded,  to  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  their  pupils.  Prof.  Leidy,  one  of  the  leading  anito- 
mists  in  America,  in  his  Anatomical  Treatise  for  the  use  of  Med- 
ical Students,  says :  "  Much  of  the  difficulty  in  the  acquisition 
and  retention  of  anatomical  knowledge  arises  from  an  excessive, 
and  in  some  respects  objectionable,  nomenclature  .  .  .  founded 
upon  no  particular  system,  &c.  In  some  measure  to  avoid  the 
difficulty  ...  a  single  name  will  be  used  for  each  part,"  &c. 

If  unnecessary  difficulty  is  found  by  the  professional  student, 
who  needs  many  technical  terms,  how  much  greater  is  the  trouble 
given  to  the  popular  reader,  who  has  no  occasion  for  professional 
language  ? 

Many  persons  favor  the  use  of  Technical  terms,  because  they 
suppose  them  to  be  scientific.  Now,  technical  and  professional 
are  not  synonymous,  nor  are  scientific  and  technical.  Scientific 
refers  to  the  order,  fulness,  and  clearness  of  presentation,  and 
may  be  used  in  connection  with  popular  as  well  as  with  profes- 
sional. Indeed,  that  which  would  be  scientific  addressed  to  a 
popular  audience,  would  not  be,  if  addressed  to  a  professional 
one,  and  vice  versa. 

By  some  these  technical  expressions  are  liked  because  they 
seem  to  them  to  give  an  air  of  learning ;  they  think  the  display 
a  class  makes  in  repeating  them  will  be  striking,  and  commend- 
ed, and  that  a  scholar  will  be  satisfied  he  is  wise,  if  he  can  mouth 
words  that  others  do  not  understand.  But,  by  all  means^  let  the 
reality  be  first  obtained,  as  thence  comes  the  profit. 

F. 

Man  is  a  twofold  "being,  composed  of  Mind  and  Body.  Though  in 
many  respects  they  may  be,  and  in  some  must  be,  treated  as  dis- 
tinct, yet  the  condition  of  either  affects  that  of  the  other. 

This  fact  is  the  keynote  of  all  practical  Physiology.  Bravery 
and  courage,  fear  and  cowardice,  levity  and  cheerfulness,  de- 
pression and  gloom,  depend  on  the  condition  of  the  body  as  much 
as  on  that  of  the  mind  ;  while  dyspepsia,  consumption,  heart  and 
other  diseases,  have  their  rise  in  mental  anxieties  as  often  as  in 
purely  physical  causes. 

Do  not  merely  hopeful  thoughts  of  delicious  fruits  make  the 
"  mouth  water,"  while  fearful  emotions  prevent  the  formation 
of  juices  ?  The  rice-test,  in  India,  detects  the  guilty  servant  on 
this  principle. 

The  blush  of  modesty  or  shame,  the  flush  of  anger,  and  the 
pallor  of  fear,  suggest  the  same  truth. 

On  the  other  hand,  military  drills  and  decorum,  requiring 
manly  attitudes  and  regular  muscular  exercises,  tend  to  reproduce 
in  the 


APPENDIX    G,  H,  I,  J.  .  41 1 

G. 

Some  will  be  ready  to  ask  if  the  Mind  is  diffused  through  the 
brain  or  located  at  some  point.  It  is  not  known. 

Again,  some  will  be  ready  to  ask,  if  all  these  questions  can- 
not be  answered,  how  is  it  certain  that  there  is  any  mind  dis- 
tinct from  the  Brain;  indeed,  Gall  said  that  mind  was  the  name 
of  the  phenomena  manifested  by  the  activities  of  the  Brain. 
But  that  whole  collection  of  parts  undergoes  more  rapid  changes 
than  any  other  portion  of  the  body,  so  that  the  brain  present  in 
the  head  when  any  transaction  takes  place  is  in  a  short  time 
entirely  gone,  while  the  memory  of  the  net  remains  vivid  for 
years.  A  person  is  also  conscious,  through  his  memory,  of  a 
continued  individual  existence  from  year  to  year,  for  scores  of 
years,  or  during  a  long  life,  while  he  is  served  during  that  time 
"by  many  Brains,  even  by  many  Bodies.  Mind  is  free,  hence  in- 
tangible, and  imperceptible  to  either  of  the  senses,  and  therefore 
not  manifested,  lest  it  be  coerced  by  any  despotism,  whether  of 
opinion  or  of  force. 

H. 

True,  the  child  uses  its  larynx  to  cry  for  food  ;  its  upper  ex- 
tremities take  everything  direct  to  its  mouth ;  nothing  solicits 
the  action  of  its  lower  extremities  more  strongly  than  something 
to  eat.  The  neck  and  the  entire  head  also  seem  to  serve,  with 
the  most  watchful  alacrity,  the  wants  of  the  contents  of  the 
Trunk-Walls. 

But  from  infancy  up  to  manhood,  as  the  growth  of  the  body 
is  becoming  more  and  more  complete,  and  it  becomes  more  ca- 
pable of  its  mental  duties,  so  does  the  mind  take  control  of  it, 
and  permits  less  and  less  attention  and  time  to  be  bestowed 
upon  the  stomach. 

I. 

The  Sensational  and  Motional  operations  of  the  Mind  will 
not  be  disputed,  and  the  other  two,  Emotional  and  Intellectional, 
belong  rather  to  the  field  of  Psychology  to  discuss.  It  suits  the 
purposes  of  Physiology  to  consider  all  the  operations  of  the 
Mind  not  sensational  nor  motional  as  being  Emotions  or  Intellec- 
tions. Whether  this  classification  is  right  or  wrong,  and  in  any 
case,  the  other  mental  operations,  except  Sensational  and  Mo- 
tional, take  place  through  the  use  of  parts  of  the  Brain  only ; 
and  of  the  mode  of  action,  no  one  has  any  correct  conception. 
Consequently  to  Physiology  it  is  a  matter  of  indifference  how 
the  Emotions  and  Intellections  are  classed,  speaking  of  them 
abstractly,  while  practically  there  are  some  advantages  in  the 
method  chosen. 

J. 

If  the  two  be  placed  on  the  thumbs'  ends,  the  B  on  the  left 
one,  and  the  N  on  the  right  one,  and  the  four  of  each  of  the 


412  APPENDIX   K, 

others  on  the  fingers,  commencing  with  Motory  on  the  fore  finger 
of  the  right  hand,  and  Respiratory  on  that  of  the  left,  and  there 
will  be  a  remarkable  correspondence  of  the  functions. 

K. 

The  proper  activity  of  all  the  organs  of  Sensation  is  produc- 
tive of  much  enjoyment.  Their  power  of  producing  it  is  partly 
natural,  and  partly  the  result  of  culture  or  habit. 

There  is  a  skilful  or  scientific  arrangement  of  objects  to  be 
made,  such  that,  through  perfect  Sensatory  Apparatus  properly 
cultivated,  the  most  exquisite  sensations  will  be  produced.  Nor 
is  this  accidental  or  the  result  of  habit.  There  is  a  science  of 
music,  colors,  forms  and  sizes  of  objects,  perfumery,  savors,  etc. 

L. 

The  following  picture  is  introduced  because  it  admirably 
contrasts  the  past  and  present,  and  is  prophetic  of  the  future. 
Labor  is  to  be  relieved  of  its  drudgery,  and  turned  over  to  brutes 
and  to  the  inanimate  forces  of  Nature.  We  copy  by  the  press  ; 
travel  by  steam  ;  post  messages  by  telegraph  ;  and  the  farmer 
mows,  hoes,  reaps,  rakes,  and  even  harrows,  pleasantly  riding 
over  the  ground  his  fathers  tilled  by  the  most  arduous  labor, 
yet  not  gaining  half  his  results.  Still  more  delightful  to  the 
philanthropic  physiologist  are  the  central  views :  the  cramped, 
tedious,  midnight  toil  of  industrious  poverty  is  abolished — pleas- 
antly performed  while  the  day  is.  yet  in  the  zenith,  and  repaid 
by  comfort  and  deserved  luxuries.  Nor  are  these  views  com- 
paratively too  conspicuous;  for  certainly  one  of  the  greatest 
blessings  ever  bestowed  up.on  mankind  was  the  invention  of  the 
lifelike  sewing  machine;*  exquisitely  neat  and  compact ;  its  use 
easily  learned ;  in  one  hour  doing  the  work  of  ten  by  hand,  and 
of  the  most  uninspiring  kind;  and  instead  of  exhausting,  improv- 
ing the  health  of  the  operator,  unless  working  too  long  at  a  time. 
Is  there  any  need  for  that?  Is  not  enough  done  by  it  even  in 
four  hours  to  command  pay  for  a  full  day's  work  ? 

Mind,  labor,  and  capital  have  each  a  right  to  share  in  the 
benefits  conferred  by  inventive  genius:  the  first  by  increased 
culture;  the  second  by  diminished  hours»and  increased  pay; 
and  the  last  by  increased  percentages.  It  has  been  too  illiberal ; 
the  former  two  nre  beginning  to  perceive  and  require  their  due; 
an  average  of  six  to  eight  hours1  labor  will  accomplish  now  twice 
what  twelve  hours  would  a  few  years  ago.  Physiology  says 
that  six  is  more,  than  the  welfare  of  mind  and  body  can  allow, 
and  Science  declares  that  a  full  development  of  all  her  resources 
will  render  four  hours  more  than  will  be  necessary. 

Ought  not  women  to  demand  their  share  ?  Will  it  not  be 
wisdom  as  well  as  justice,  economy  as  well  as  propriety,  to  allow 
women  more  time  for  leisure  and  mental  culture  ?  Have  not  the 
worth,  the  wearing  nature  of  their  labors,  and  the  time  occupied 

*  Being  frequently  risked  by  tonchers  \vhich  is  the  best,  the  reply  is.  In  our 
family  we  we  Whcelor  &  Wilson's,  and  after  severnl  years'  experience  and  obser- 
vation think  '  """•?.  should  be  taught  to  all  advanced  cl.-isses  of  girls. 


APPENDIX    L. 


by  them,  been  very  much  undervalued  ?  Some  are  too  indolent 
for  their  health  ;  but  do  not  the  most  work  too  long,  and  more 
in  proportion  than  men?  Do  not  their  labors  require  much 
versatility?  Their  household  occupations  are  numerous,  per- 
plexing, and  some  of  them  very  unpleasant,  at  best.  Cooking 
must  be  done  with  heat,  and  in  hot  weather  cannot  be  made 
very  enticing.  Yet  what  adds  more  to  home-happiness  than 
good  housekeeping,  particularly  cooking?  Ought  not,  then, 
woman's  work  to  be  honored,  and  made  as  easy,  speedy,  and 
pleasant  as  possible  ? 

Kitchens  should  never  be  in  basements,  'unhealthy  not  only, 
but  uncheerful.  Everything  in  them  should  be  handy — fuel, 
hot  and  cold  water,  etc.  In  particular,  cooking  utensils  should 


414 


APPENDIX   M. 


be  simple,  and  easily  and  effectively  used.  Fire  was  the  great- 
est invention  of  man;  its  most  humanizing  application  \vjis  to 
cooking;  and  a  stove  instead  of  a  fire-place  one  of  the  great- 
est blessings  to  woman.  The  modern  range-form,  either  set  or 
portable,  is  a  great  advance  over  the  high  stoves  yet  in  very 
common  use.  Being  lower,  the  lifting  on  and  off  of  articles  gives 
an  aggregate,  in  the  course  of  a  day,  of  great  relief  to  muscular 


exertion.  There  is  greater  working  surface  ;  six  holes  are  more 
convenient  than  four;  and  an  internal  arrangement  is  allowable 
that  insures  perfect  baking  at  all  times  with  coal,  and  with  a 
great  economy  of  fuel,  apparently  otherwise  unattainable ;  and 
bad  baking  is  a  great  vexation  to  woman,  as  well  as  a  great  waste. 
The  range-form  is  also  made  at  less  cost.*  A  wooden  handle  on 
a  kettle  is  a  small  matter,  but  will  save  many  steps  and  morons. 
All  such  little  things  must  be  observed,  for  woman's  toils  are 
numerous,  and  she  should  receive  corresponding  facilities. 

M. 

The  following  figures  illustrate  a  neat  form  of  Tourniquet 
being  applied.  The  lettered  Fig.  is  a  section  of  a  limb  at  the 
point  of  application.  E  indicates  an  elastic  band,  a  yard  or  more 
in  length,  that  drawn  tightly  and  repeatedly  passed  around  the 
arms  of  the  Tourniquet,  will  surely  compress  the  artery  A, 
yet  not  so  as  to  altogether  prevent  the  action  of  the  neighbor- 


*  The  author  takes  especial  pride  in  having  done  something  to  improve  cook- 
insr-apparatus.  The,  Monitor  ranjre,  figured  above,  in  extern;)!  form  does  not  differ 
from  others,  but  it  has  internal  arransements  that  render  it  the  best  for  cooking, 
purtic.nlarly  hakinc,  nnd  with  much  the  preat^M  economy  in  fuel  of  anything  yet 
invento'l.  H,-  is  also  nreparin-r  a  Treatise  on  Ventilation,  Heat,  nnd  its  household 
p,  present  in£  economical  and  intore.^inc:  suggestions. 


APPENDIX,    N,    O.  415 


ing  muscles,  or  the  flow  of  blood  through  some  of  the  veins. 
Every  Tourniquet  should  be  elastic.* 

N. 

Neither  pantaloons,  nor  drawers,  should  be  girded  about 
the  loins :  especially  in  case  of  overalls  worn  by  hard-laboring 
men  an  elastic  band  should  form  some  part  of  the  waist,  allow- 
ing the  most  extensive  motion  of  the  trunk-walls,  without  inju- 
riously constricting  their  contents  ;  many  very  serious  evils 
would  thus  be  prevented. 

Skirts  also  should  always  be  fully  supported  from  the  shoul- 
ders, and  their  bands  should  never  gird  or  constrict  the  wearer. 
The  invention  of  the  hoop-skirt,  thof?£h  s:>  much  ridiculed,  was 
a  .preat  blessing  to  ladies,  enabling  them  to  dress  fashionably 
without  the  burden  previously  so  oppressive.  Their  shadow 
may  with  propriety  grow  less,  but  it  is  physiologically  desirable 
that  parts  of  them  should  always  be  worn.t 

p. 

Drowning,   Choking,  Suffocation,  etc. 

The  air-passages  opening  into  the  pharynx  should  be  closed 
when  food  or  drink  is  swallowed,  and  it  will  then  be  noticed 
that  the  tongue,  in  the  very  act  of  swallowing,  presses  against 
the  roof  of  the  month,  firmly  holding  the  epiglottis  (30,  PI.  30) 
against  which  the  larynx  is  involuntarily  raised — as  ir,  also  should 
be,  and  is,  when  any  powerful  substances,  smoke,  etc.,  enter  as 
far  as  to  the  larynx. 

If  a  person  is  plunged  under  water,  none  of  it  will  enter  his 
lungs,  for  his  larynx  will  be  involuntarily  closed ;  neither  will 
he  swallow  any  considerable  quantity  of  it. 

The  method  of  restoring  a  dro\vne;l  person  is  suggested  by 
reflecting  upon  his  condition.  He  has  no  internal  means  of  sus- 
taining his  heat ;  none  therefore  should  be  lost  that  can  be  saved, 
and  it  should  be  artificially  increased.  Remove  wet  clothing, 
and  put  warm  articles  about  his  chest  in  particular.  Cloths 
dipped  in  water  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear,  often  replaced,  are 
best ;  bricks,  stones,  stove- covers,  anything  warm,  but  not  burn- 
ing, may  be  used.  Keep  him  out  of  any  draft  of  air.  The  next 

*  It  will  be  of  direct  interest  to  a  class  to  see  the  instrument  applied,  and  its 
effects,  and  of  practical  value  to  each  one  to  apply  it.  Its  cost,  is  small,  and  with 
full  description  will  he  supplied  to  Teachers  at  a.  discount  by  the  Publishers. 

t  It  may  be  of  use,  to  c:ill  attenti'-n  to  a  very  valuable  improvement  in  this 
article  of  apparel  invented  by  Mr.  I.radley  (the  Duplex),  since  it  is  the  lightest 
and  best  yet  made;  it  should,  however,  be  suspended  upon  the  shoulders. 


416  APPENDIX    O. 

> 

tiling  necessary  is  to  relieve  the  Blood  of  carbonic  acid.  If  he 
have  been  insensible  but  a  few  moments,  a  smart  slap  on  the 
shoulders,  a  dash  of  water  in  the  face,  or  tickling  the  throat,  may 
excite  a  gasp,  and  if  he  gives  one  he  will  give  another  in  time, 
and  nothing  more  need  be  done;  he  will  soon  be  restored.  The 
first  step  in  respiration  is  to  place  him  on  the  back,  with  the 
shoulders,  head,  and  hips  a  little  raised  above  the  loins.  The 
second  stop  is  to  secure  a  free  passage  for  air  through  the  larynx, 
by  seizing  the  tongue  between  the  fingers,  covered  with  cloth  to 
hold  it  firmly,  and  extending  it,  thus  raising  the  epiglottis,  at  the 
same  time  pressing  down  the  Adam's  apple,  or  larynx,  away 
from  the  epiglottis.  If  this  does  not  prove  sufficient,  let  an  in- 
cision admitting  the  little  finger  be  made  in  the  windpipe  just 
below  the  larynx  (it  cannot  do  harm),  and  kept  open  in  any 
convenient  way.  The  third  step  is  to  expel  air  from  the  lurgs 
by  raising  the  loins  as  high  as  possible  without  lifting  the  hips, 
and  then  allowing  them  to  sink,  which  will  cause  inspiration. 

Let  these  motions  for  expiration  and  inspiration  be  repeated 
as  often  as  a  person  would  naturally  breathe.  Continue  the  pro- 
cesses of  warming  and  artificial  respiration  for  not  less  than 
three  hours,  unless  signs  of  animation  are  previously  shown.  A 
case  is  known  where  two  and  one  half  hours  elapsed,  and  the 
person  now  lives;  and  another,  has  been  observed  where,  two 
hours  after  falling  into  the  water,  a  person  first  gave  si»ns  of  life. 

In  case  of  suffocation  by  *'moke,  gases  in  a  well,  etc.,  the 
same  state  exists  as  in  drowning,  and  the  sair.e  course  is  needed. 

If  a  house  is  on  fire,  there  will  be  a  strata  of  pure  air  near 
the  floor,  that  may  be  breathed ;  and  if  a  person  must  go  through 
smoke,  he  should  close  the  nose  that  he  may  not  strangle,  and 
if  he  must  brenthe  before  the  smoke  is  passed,  let  him  put  his 
face  to  the  floor  before  freeing  his  nose.  Smoke  will  not  pass 
through  a  wet  handkerchief  or  other  cloth  of  several  thicknesses, 
but  air  will.  Therefore,  if  convenient,  use  it. 

If  a  person  is  choked,  the  food  should  be  drawn  out  from,  or 
pushed  down,  the  throat,  and  if  a  person  does  not  then  gasp,  he 
is  t->  be  treated  as  drowned. 

Hard  substances  swallowed  are  very  apt  to  be  refused  by  the 
oesophagus,  naturally  adapted  only  to  receive  soft  substances, 
and  in  its  effort  to  reject  them  they  are  sometimes  crowded  for- 
ward, under  the  epiglottis,  rind  into  the  larynx,  strangling  by 
detention  there,  or,  carried  through  it,  obstruct  the  pipe  below. 
In  the  former  case,  the  windpipe  must  be  opened;  then  proceed 
as  in  case  of  the  drowned  :  in  the  latter  case,  the  substance  must 
be  drawn  out,  a  thing  usually  difficult  to  do.  Young  children 
should  not  have,  nor  older  persons  hold,  in  the  mouth  small  hard 
substances. 

In  ulcerations  of  the  throat,  or  when  the  nicer  breaks,  or  in 
case  of  croup  in  the  larynx,  opening  the  windpipe  is  sometimes 
advisable,  and  the  only  thing  that  can  save  life — can  do  no  harm, 
and  should  always  be  assented  to  nnd  encouraged  when  advised 
by  the  physician. 


APPENDIX.  417 

DESCPJPTION  OF  PLATES. 

PLATE  1.  Skeleton  complete,  with  ligaments  on  right  side;  a,  a,  posi- 
tion of  large  arteries  of  arm  and  leg. 

PLATE  2.  General  view  of  muscles,  the  superficial  ones  of  the  neck, 
chest,  and  abdomen,  being  removed. 

PLATE  3.  Fig  1,  back  view  of  brains  and  spinal  cord,  portions  of  the 
skull  and  the  right  side  of  the  body  being  dissected  to  exhibit  them.  Fig.2, 
a  front  view  of  the  spinal  cord,  roots  of  nerves,  and  under  surface  of  the 
brain  covered  with  thin  membrane. 

PLATE  3*  or  26.  Fig.  1,  a  beautiful  view  of  the  interior  of  the  chest, 
dissected,  and  its  contents  drawn  forward  to  show  d,  its  left  sympathetic 
ganglia,  and  the  division  of  },  the  left  pneumo-gastric  (8th)  nerve.  It  will 
be  observed  that  branches  of  it  extend  to  the  larynx.  Fig.  2,  parts  dis- 
sected to  show  the  front  part  of  the  spinal  cord  and  the  roots  of  its  nerves. 
Fig.  4,  white  cords  illustrate  the  nerves  magnified  in  a  finger. 

PLATE  4.  Fig.  1,  Ear ;  see  page  309.  Fig.  2,  see  page  136.  Fig.  3,  see 
page  135.  Fig.  4,  see  page  136.  Fig.  5,  a  section  of  the  nose,  with  a  por- 
tion of  the  turbinated  bone  removed,  to  show  12,  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
lachrymal,  a  tear-duct  leading  from  the  eye.  Fig.  22,  Eustachian  tube. 
Fig.  0,  Tongue.  Fig.  7  represents  touch.  Fig.  8  speaks  of  the  muscular 
sense.  The  Plate  illustrates  in  part  each  of  the  six  senses. 

PLATE  5.  Fig.  1.  The  dark  lines  upon  the  right  side  represent  veins, 
the  light  ones  on  the  right  side  arteries  dissected  into  view.  Fig.  2,  plan 
of  hearts,  and  large  arteries,  and  veins.  „ 

PLATE  5*  or  28.  Fig.  1,  general  view  of  lymphatics;  and  in  2  a  view 
of  the  lacteals  is  added.  Fig.  3,  lymphatics  in  the  skin  of  a  thumb.  Fig.  4, 
the  dotted  lines  show  a  network,  or  capillaries  of  lymphatics  in  a  frog's 
foot;  A,  V,  arteries  and  veins  with  capillaries  between  them. 

PLATE  6.  An  admirable  synoptical  view  of  all  the  mentory  organs. 
Fig.  1,  skeleton;  2,  muscles;  3,  brain  and  nerves;  4,  skin;  5,  organs  of 
sense,  ear,  eye,  nose,  mouth,  skin,  muscle;  G,  Blood-tubes  of  mentory  or- 
gans. This  Plate  explains  at  a  glance  the  structure  of  all  the  members  ex- 
cept the  trunk,  showing  that  there  are  only  five  kinds  of  organs  in  the 
arm,  leg,  trunk-walls,  neck,  and  only  five  more  (10)  in  the  HEAD !  This 
single  Plate  is  a  volume  of  Anatomy. 

PLATE  7.  Fig.  2,  front  walls  of  trunk  dissected  to  give  front  view  of  its 
contents  (see  Fig.  54).  Fig.  1,  view  of  diaphragm,  4  (an'1  3,  Fig.  2,  D,  Fig.  4). 
Fig.  3,  pulmonary  capillaries  much  magnified.  Fig.  4,  plan  of  perpendic- 
ular section  of  lungs  with  heart  between  them;  the  white  lines  and  en- 
largements are  divisions  of  the  windpipe  and  air-cells,  and  the  dark  lines 
by  the  side  of  them  blood-vessels.  Fig.  5,  perpendicular  section  of  lungs  in 
chest ;  T,  trachea,  leading  into  them  ;  IL  place  of  the  heart.  Fig.  6,  cross 
section  of  the  lungs  and  hearts,  II,  and  of  the  chest-walls  of  one  side. 
Fig.  7,  same,  on  the  level  with  the  divisions  of  the  trachea.  Figs.  8,  9,  10, 
11,  views  of  the  circulation.  Fig.  12,  1,  spleen;  2,  pancreas;  3,  duode- 
num; 4,  liver;  5,  gall-bladder;  6,  7,  8,  gastric  and  mesenteric  veins.  Fig. 
13,  lacteals,  lymphatic  glands,  and  thoracic  duct.  Fig.  14,  kidneys.  This 
Plate  illustrates  the  contents  of  Trunk-walls,  being  a  counterpart  to  PI.  6. 

PL.  7*  or  31.   Fig.  1  (see  Fig.  90).   Fig.  2  (Fig.  100).  Fig.  3  (Fig.  109). 


418  APPENDIX. 

PLATE  8.  The  Printer,  publishers,  and  Author  may  justly  feel  proud 
of  this  page,  produced  in  four  colors  from  electrotyped  wood-cuts.  It  is  a 
very  difficult  thing  to  register  or  adjust  four  colors  as  accurately  as  the 
necessities  of  these  illustrations  require,  and  as  perfectly  as  has  been  done 
here.  Better  work  of  this  kind  has  never  been  accomplished  by  any  printer, 
yet  it  has  not  been  possible  to  have  every  copy  exact.  The  entire  consti- 
tution of  light,  and  the  physical  action  of  the  eye  upon  it,  is  perfectly  and 
beautifully  illustrated  by  the  several  figures. 

Fig.  1  represents  light  shining  from  one  point  of  each  of  three  candle 
flames  through  an  opening  in  the  cornea  of  an  eye  without  any  refracting 
media.  Thus,  the  light  from  the  three  points  is  spread  over  a  great  ex- 
tent of  surface  in  the  back  part  of  the  eye,  and  some  from  one  point  falls 
upon  the  same  surface  as  that  from  another  point,  preventing  the  possibil- 
ity of  distinctness  of  vision. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  light  as  in  1,  acted  upon  by  the  media  of  the  eye 
and  refracted  upon  corresponding  points  or  foci,  r,  y,  b,  by  which  sensa- 
tions may  be  distinct  and  numerous,  and  perceptions  of  directions  accurate. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  long  sight,  the  media  partially  refracting  the  light. 

Fig.  4  illustrates  short  sight,  the  light  being  refracted  too  much.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  effects  upon  the  nerves  in  the  back  part  of  the  eye 
are  the  same  in  3  and  4.  The  nerves  do  not  terminate  as  represented  in 
these  figures ;  they,  however,  induce  a  correct  idea  of  the  method  of  seeing. 

Fig.  5  represents  two  rays  of  light  acting  on  the  same  nerve,  b  d,  in 
which  case  a  single  sensation  (of  purple,  when  red  and  blue  act)  will  be 
caused. 

Fig.  6  represents  two  similar  rays  acting  on  two  nerves,  ac,db;  in 
which  case  two  sensations  will  be  caused. 

Fig.  7  illustrates  white  light,  10,  shining  through  a  small  orifice  into  a 
dark  room,  and  passing  through  a  prism,  p,  by  which  it  is  separated  into 
three  kinds,  red,  yellow,  blue.  The  separation  does  not  take  place  thus 
in  the  prism,  as  red  and  yellow  will  be  blended  at  their  margins,  producing 
orange,  and  yellow  and  t>lue  producing  green,  etc.,  exhibiting  all  the  colors 
of  the  rainbow.  The  idea  impressed  by  this  figure,  that  there  are  three 
kinds  of  light,  is  correct;  and 

Fig.  8  more  perfectly  illustrates  the  proportions  of  the  natural  colors 
that  acting  together  produce  white,  and,  blended  or  acting  consecutively, 
most  highly  please,  namely,  three  parts  red,  five  of  yellow,  and  eight  of 
blue,  making  white— sixteen.  The  figures  3,  5,  8, 16,  may  represent  those 
colors,  when  13  will  stand  for  green,  11  for  purple,  and  8  for  orange,  etc., 
the  proportions  in  which  they  must  be  combined  to  please  most  perfectly. 

Fig.  9  represents  an  eye,  2,  looking  through  a  hole  in  eye  1.  The 
light  from  I  passes  upward  into  eye  1,  and  comes  downward  into  eye  2, 
upon  the  lower  part  of  which  it  will  act,  and  the  direction  from  which  it 
has  come  will  appear  to  one  eye  to  be  the  reverse  of  what  it  will  seem  to 
be  to  the  other.  This  figure  explains  all  the  peculiarities  of  inverted  images. 

Figs.  10  to  17  represent  by  the  "black  lines  so  many  different  objects 
with  white  light  falling  upon  them,  and  absorbed,  as  in  10,  causing  the 
object  to  appear  black,  or  reflected  as  in  11,  causing  it  to  appear  white;  or 
reflected  in  part,  Fi<rs.  12  to  17,  causing  the  objects  to  appear  red,  green,  etc. 


APPENDIX.  419 

PLATE  9.  Fig.  1,  skull.  Fig.  2,  upper  jaw.  Fig.  3,  lower  jaw.  Fig.  4, 
palate-bone.  Fig.  5,  internal,  Fig.  6,  external  surface  of  the  occipital 
bone.  Fig.  7,  external  surface  of  parietal  bone. 

PLATE  10.  Fig.  1,  internal  surface  of  parietal  bone.  Fig.  2,  upper, 
Fig.  3,  lower  surfaces  of  spenoid  bones.  Fig.  4,  inner,  Fig.  5,  outer  sur- 
face of  frontal  bone.  Fig.  6,  side  view  of  ethmoid  bone. 

PLATE  11.  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  inner,  side,  and  outer  view  of  temporal  bone. 
Fig.  4,  posterior  view  of  ethmoid  bone.  Fig.  5,  under  surface  of  skull. 
Fig.  G,  inner  surface  of  lower  half  of  cranium. 

PLATE  12.  Fig.  1,  side  view  of  spinal  column;  1,  atlas  (Fig.  2,  upper, 
Fig.  3,  lower  view  of  same) ;  2,  dentatus  (Fig.  4,  same);  3,  cervical  verte- 
brae (Fig.  5,  one  of  same) ;  4  to  6,  dorsal  vertebra  (Fig.  6,  one  of  same) ; 
5  to  7,  lumbar  vertebrae  (Fig.  7,  one  of  same) ;  8,  sacrum ;  9,  coxcyx. 
Fig.  8,  side  view  of  frame  of  trunk- walls.  Fig.  10,  section  through  the  hip- 
joint;  6,  the  thigh-bone ;  3,  the  hip.  *Fig.  9,  hyoid  bone. 

PLATE  13.  Fig.  1,  front,  2,  back  view  of  spinal  column  ;  3,  inner  view 
of  ribs  ;  4,  frame  of  chest;  5,  front,  G,  back  view  of  sternum;  7,  side  view 
of  pelvis. 

PLATE  14.  Fig.  1, front  view  of  pelvis;  2,  sacrum;  3,  back,  4,  front 
view  of  femur  (thigh) ;  5,  front,  6,  back  view  of  tibia  (shin) ;  7,  front  and 
back  view  of  fibula ;  8,  tibia  and  fibula,  front  view ;  9  and  10,  front  and  back 
view  of  patella  (knee-pan). 

PLATE  15.  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  upper,  under,  and  side  view  of  foot ;  4,  5,  upper 
and  lower  surfaces  of  clavicle  (collar-bone) ;  G,  back  view  of  scapula  (shoul- 
der-blade) ;  7,  humerus  (upper  arm-bone) ;  7,  ulna ;  8,  radius. 

PLATE  16.  Fig.  1,  lower  portion  of  ulna  and  radius,  and  back  view 
of  hand;  2,  front  view  of  hand;  3,  back  view  of  opening  into  larynx. 
Fig.  4,  view  of  ligament;  5,  binding  cranium,  4,  to  dentatus,  3.  Fig.  5, 
showing  ligament,  7,  extending  across  behind  the  process,  5.  Fig.  6,  liga- 
ments of  spinal  column.  Figs.  7,  8,  ligaments  binding  ribs  in  place. 

PLATE  17.  Figs.  1,  2,  ligaments  of  hip  ;  3,  4, 5,  those  of  knee ;  6,  sec- 
tion of  knee,  showing  its  lining  membrane,  the  patella,  4,  and  some  liga- 
ments ;  7,  side,  8,  back  view  of  ankle  and  its  ligaments. 

PLATE  18.  Fig.  1,  ligaments  beneath  foot;  2,  of  the  sternum,  and  ribs, 
and  clavicle  ;  3,  clavicle,  scapula,  and  humerus  (shoulder-joint) ;  4,  of  the 
elbow,  and  10,  between  the  ulna  and  radius.  Fig.  5  shows  the  beautiful 
ligament,  4,  that  binds  the  head  of  the  radius  by  the  side  of  the  ulna.  Fig.  6, 
ligaments  of  wrist  and  hand;  7,  a  few  of  the  same ;  3,  5, 10,  17, 18,  mem- 
branes  lining  the  joints. 

PLATE  19.  Fig.  1,  cranium  and  facial  muscles.  Fig.  2,  facium  and  in- 
ternal muscles  of  the  jaw ;  3,  superficial  muscles  of  the  neck ;  4,  deep  mus- 
cles of  neck ;  5,  muscles  of  the  side  of  the  face  and  throat ;  6,  muscles  of 
tongue ;  7,  back  view  of  pharynx ;  8,  pharynx  removed,  and  the  larynx 
brought  into  view. 

PLATE  20.  Front  view  of  superficial  muscles  of  right  side  of  head, 
neck,  trunk,  and  lower  extremity,  and  the  deeper  ones  of  the  left  side ; 
2,  deep  muscles  of  the  throat ;  3,  deepest  muscles  of  front  part  of  the  neck ; 
4,  pharynx  laid  open  to  exhibit  the  orifice  from  it  into  the  larynx,  12,  the 
mouth,  10,  and  the  nostrils,  6. 


420  APPENDIX. 

PLATE  21.  Fig.  1,  muscles  of  the  side  of  the  neck  and  under  the  shoulder- 
blade  ;  2,  of  the  front  walls  of  the  abdomen  ;  3,  deep  muscles  of  the  back 
of  the  neck  ;  4,  deepest  muscles  of  the  back. 

PLATE  22.  Fig.  1,  view  of  superficial  muscles  of  the  right  side  of  the 
back  and  of  the  deeper  ones  of  the  left  side.  Fig.  2,  superficial  muscles  of 
the  right,  and  deeper  ones  of  the  left  lower  extremity.  Fig.  3,  section  of 
larynx.  Fig.  4,  muscles  of  side  view  of  larynx. 

PLATE  23.  Fig.  1,  back  view  of  hip-muscles;  2,  front  view  of  muscles 
of  thigh  ;  3,  back  view  of  lower  leg  ;  4,  front  view  of  lower  leg ;  5,  superfi- 
cial muscles  in  sole  of  foot. 

PLATE  24.  Fig.  1,  deeper  muscles  in  sole  of  foot;  2,  deepest  muscles 
nnd  tendons  of  foot ;  3,  triceps  on  back  of  upper  arm  ;  4,  muscles  of  back 
of  scapula  and  arm  ;  5,  muscles  of  the  front  part  of  upper  arm ;  G,  superfi- 
cial muscles  of  lower  arm. 

PLATE  25.  Fig.  1,  deep  muscles  of  front  part  of  lower  arm  ;  4,  deepest 
muscles  of  hand  ;  2,  superficial  muscles  of  back  of  lower  arm ;  3,  deeper 
muscles. 

PLATE  27.  Fig.  1  represents  a  portion  of  the  heart  dissected,  and  show- 
ing by  the  network  of  white  lines  the  lymphatics  of  that  organ.  1,  right 
auricle;  -2,  venacava;  3,  aorta  ;  4,  pulmonary  vein  ;  6, 'pulmonary  artery ; 
/),  coronary  artery  and  vein.  Fig.  2,  a  diagram  of  the  relations  of  the 
blood-vessels  near  the  heart,  the  windpipe,  and  the  nerves  10  and  13. 
Fig.  3,  internal  view  of  1,  right,  and  2,  left  heart ;  3,  right  auricle  ;  4,  pul- 
monary vein  ;  5,  vena  cava;  6,  7,  tricuspid  valves;  9,  muscles  attached 
to  the  tricuspid;  10,  Mitral  valve;  11,  pulmonary  artery  open ;  12,  one 
semilunar  valve;  13,  sinus  behind  another. 

PLATE  29.  Fig.  1  is  a  beautiful  representation  of  the  thoracic  duct,  1, 
opening  into  the  veins  at  3,  and  receiving  in  its  course  the  lymphatics  and 
lacteals.  Fig.  2  is  a  magnified  portion  of  the  second  stomach,  showing  the 
folds  of  its  inner  surface  and  the  tubular  glands  between  them;  3  shows 
the  same  tubular  glands,  the  papillae  standing  up,  and  the  Peyer's  glands, 
1  and  2.  Fig.  4  is  an  exquisitely  truthful,  very  much  magnified  view  of 
the  tubes  and  papillae,  in  some  of  which  the  cells  forming  their  surface  are 
seen ;  from  others  they  are  removed,  and  the  capillaries  and  their  connect- 
ing artery  and  vein,  14,  15,  are  brought  into  view;  the  lacteals,  16,  are 
also  seen  commencing  in  the  centre  of  the  papillae,  as  at  17.  Fig.  5  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  the  lacteals  extending  from  it 
toward  the  thoracic  duct. 

PLATE  30.  Fig.  1  represents  a  perpendicular  section  of  the  eye  magni- 
fied, (see  description  of  the  eye.)  Fig.  2  is  a  section  of  the  nose,  mouth, 
throat,  spinal  column,  and  larynx,  admirably  showing  many  things  to  the 
glance  of  the  eye.  It  is  a  delightful  study,  worthy  of  the  frequent  reference 
made  to*  it  in  the  body  of  the  work  ;  10,  opening  of  the  Eustachian  tube; 
23,  amygdaloid  glands  ;  30,  epiglottis,  etc. 


%*  A  fuller  description  of  the  Plates  will  be  given  in  succeeding  edi- 
tions, if  found  desirable.     Teachers  will  please  indicate  their  opinions. 


PLATE  1. 


PLATE  2. 


TJITIVEKSITT 


PLATE  3. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


PLATE  3*  or  26. 
Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 


PLATE  4. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  4. 


PLATE  5. 


Fig.  2. 


UHIVERSIT7 


PLATE  6. 


PLATE  7. 


Fig.  2 


if 


nv  THE 


PLATE  9. 


Pi<r.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


PLATE  11 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  1. 


PLATE  15. 
Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


PLATE  16. 


Fig.  1. 


PLATE  IT. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


PLATE  19. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  4. 


PLATE  21. 


Fig.  3. 


PLATE  22. 


Fig.  1. 


PLATE  23. 


PLATE  24. 


Fig.  1. 


PLATE  27. 


Fig.  1 


PLATE  30. 


Fig.  1. 


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